Chapter 5 Meaning1. Semantics(语义学)Semantics is the study of meaning of the linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. (语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。)2. Meanings of “meaning”1).Meaning: Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.（意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。）2).Connotation: （内涵）Connotation means the properties of the entity a word denotes. (内涵指的是一个词所指称的实体的特征。)3).Denotation: （外延） Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. (外延涉及语言单位与非语言实体之间的关系。在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。)3. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in peoples mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world.4. The referential theory1).DefinitionThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论)2).The semantic triangle （语义三角）Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle” as manifested in the following diagram。The connection (represented with a dotted line) between symbol and referent is made possible only through “concept.”Concept / notion（概念）Thought / referenceSymbolizesRefers to-SymbolobjectWordstands for realitySignifierreferentCode（词语）signified（事物）5. Sense relations （涵义关系）5.1SynonymySynonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation.5.2Antonymy（反义关系）Antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three subtypes: gradable, complementary and converse antonymy.（反义关系是对立关系的专业术语，它包括三个此类： 等级反义关系，互补反义关系和反向反义关系。）.Gradable antonymy（等级反义关系）Gradable antonymy is the commonest type of antonymy. They are mainly adjectives, e.g. good / bad, long / short, big / small, etc.Complementary antonymy（互补反义关系）The members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic filed completely. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, but the denial of one also means the assertion of the other, e.g. alive / dead, hit / miss, male / female, boy / girl, etc.(跟第一种反义关系相反，这种反义词的成员彼此互补。也就是说它们吧一个语义领域完全切分成两半。不但对一方的肯定意味着对另一方的否定，而且对一方的否定也意味着对另一方的肯定。).Converse antonymy（反向反义关系）Converse antonyms are also called relational opposites. This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e.g. buy / sell, parent / child, above / below, etc.（这是反义关系的一种特殊类型，因为其中的成员并不构成肯定或者否定的对立，而只表现两实体间的一种反向关系。这种反义关系典型地表现在两两相对的角色、亲属关系、时间和空间关系等方面；在这种意义上，它叫关系对立。）5.3Hyponymy (上下义关系)Hyponymy is meaning inclusiveness or a matter of class membership. That is to say, when x is a kind of y, the lower term x is the hyponym, and the upper term y is the superordinate. （上下义关系是指意义内包关系或者说一种类与成员间的关系。位于这种意义关系上位的词语叫上坐标词； 位于下位的是成员，叫下义词。）Two or more hyponyms of the same one superordinate are called co-hyponyms, e.g. under flower, there are peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc., flower is the superordinate of peony, jasmine, etc., peony is the hyponym of flower, and peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc. are co-hyponyms.（同下义词）5.4 Homonymy (同音/同形异义关系)Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (同音/同形异义关系是指不同意义的词具有相同的形式这一种现象，即不同的词发音或者拼写相同，或者发音和拼写都相同。)When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones. (同音异义词)When two words are identical in spelling, they are called homographs.(同形异义词) When two words are identical both in sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.(完全同音同形词)5.5. Entailment (蕴含)If that one sentence is true gives us certain knowledge of the truth of the second sentence, then the first sentence entails the second one. (如果知道一个句子的真假能够判断另一个句子的真假，那么第一个句子就蕴含了第二个句子。)In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between the two sentences if a entails b:When a is true, b is necessarily true; (a真 b真)When b is false, a is false; (b假 a假)When a is false, b may be true or false; (a假 b或真或假)When b is true, a may be true. (b真 a或真或假)5.6. Presupposition (预设)The speaker or writer always assumes that the hearer or reader already knows something of what he is going to say or write. This “something” often becomes the presupposition of a sentence. In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between two sentences:When a i