Memory Processes,Chapter 6,Outline,Encoding and Transfer of Information Retrieval Processes of Forgetting and Memory Distortion The Constructive Nature of Memory,1. Encoding and Transfer of Information,Forms of Encoding Short-Term Storage Acoustic Encoding Participants were presented with series of six letters in a serial-recall task Errors participants substituted letters that sounded like the correct letters (e.g. B for P) Short-term memory relies primarily on an acoustic rather than semantic or visual code,1. Encoding and Transfer of Information,Forms of Encoding Short-Term Storage Semantic Encoding (by meanings of words) Although encoding in short-term memory appears to be primarily acoustic, there may be some secondary semantic encoding as well Visual Encoding We sometimes temporarily encode information visually as well, although visual encoding appears to be more fleeting and vulnerable to decay than acoustic encoding,1. Encoding and Transfer of Information,Forms of Encoding Long-Term Storage Semantic Encoding Most information stored in long-term memory is primarily semantically encoded Evidence In recognition tasks participants make more errors when distracters are semantically related to target words We have tendency to remember words by clustering them into categories (e.g. animals),1. Encoding and Transfer of Information,Forms of Encoding Long-Term Storage Visual Encoding We tend to cluster items into categories according to their visual similarities Acoustic Encoding Sometimes (even though rarely) we use acoustic encoding too,1. Encoding and Transfer of Information,2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Basic Concepts Consolidation Process of integrating new information into stored information Metamemory Strategies Based on reflecting on our own memory processes wit a view to improving our memory,1. Encoding and Transfer of Information,2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Rehearsal Repeated recitation of an item To move information into long-term memory, an individual must engage in elaborative rehearsal, in which the person meaningfully integrates the items into what the person already knows Maintenance rehearsal the person simply repetitiously rehearses the items to be repeated, temporarily maintains information in short-term memory without transferring it to long-term memory,1. Encoding and Transfer of Information,2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Spacing effect People tend to remember information longer when they acquire it via distributed practice (i.e., various sessions spaced over time) rather than via massed practice (session crammed together all at once) A good nights sleep, which includes plenty of REM stage sleep, aids in memory consolidation Benefits of distributed practice seem to occur because we have a relatively rapid learning system in the hippocampus that becomes activated during REM sleep,1. Encoding and Transfer of Information,2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Mnemonic devices Specific techniques to help you memorize lists of words by adding meaning to otherwise meaningless lists of items 1. Categorical clustering One organizes a list of items into a set of categories (e.g. fruits, vegetables,) 2. Interactive images One imagines the objects represented by words one has to remember interacting with each other in some active way,1. Encoding and Transfer of Information,2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Mnemonic devices (cont.) 3. Pegword system One associates each word with a word on a previously memorized list and forms and interactive image between the two words (e.g. “one is a bun,” “two is a shoe” imagining an apple between two bunds a sock stuffed inside a shoe) 4. Method of loci One visualizes walking around an area with distinctive landmarks and one then links the various landmarks to specific items to be remembered (e.g. a strange-looking house with a sock on top of the house in place of the chimney),1. Encoding and Transfer of Information,2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Mnemonic devices (cont.) 5. Acronyms One devises a word or expression in which each of its letters stands for a certain other word or concept (e.g. UK) 6. Acrostics One forms a sentence rather than a single word to help one remember new words (e.g. “every good does fine” to recall names of notes in music),1. Encoding and Transfer of Information,2. Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory Mnemonic devices (cont.) 7. Keyword system One forms an interactive image that links the sound and meaning of a foreign word with the sound and meaning of a familiar word (e.g. libro (Spanish) with liberty and think of the Statue of Liberty holding up a large book),2. Retrieval,1. Retrieval from Short-Term Memory Saul Sternberg (1966) Wondered whether items are retrieved all at once