Chgapter 8,Meaning and Context,BACK,Meaning and Context,Context is very important. As most words are polysemic, without context there is no way to determine the meaning of a word. Meaning is defined in context.,8.1 Types of Context 8.1.1 Extra-linguistic Context,Extra-linguistic context is context beyond language, but physical situation, in which language is used: the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background, e.g.,8.1.1 Extra-linguistic Context,weekend (length of time) 1) one day (1980s) 2) one day and half (1995) 3) two days (1996) 4) two days and half (some places),8.1.1 Extra-linguistic Context,weekend (days for rest) Sunday and Monday (华师分校) Monday and Tuesday (some factories) one day of a week (private enterprise),8.1.1 Extra-linguistic Context,广场（square） 1) a large flat area without buildings 2) a large building (亚贸广场；武广) 城（city） 1) a large town with more than 300,000 residents 2) 家俱城；书城,8.1.1 Extra-linguistic Context,landlord （地主; 房东） exploiter of peasants (negative) one who has house to let (positive),8.1.1 Extra-linguistic Context,worker (before 1949) (1950s-1960s) (1980s) (1990s) (2000),8.1.2 Linguistic Context,Linguistic context is the linguistic enviornment, in which a linguistic unit is used. A linguistic unit can be a phrase, a clause, a sentence, a paragraph, a passage, a chapter in a book or even a book.,8.1.2 Linguistic Context,do a sum (work out the answer to a mathematical question) do ones teeth (brush) do the flowers (arrange) do fish (cook) do science at school (study) do a museum/a city/a country (visit),8.1.2 Linguistic Context,A car can do 80 miles an hour. John is doing well in school. Ill do you if you dont stop. Lexical context refers to the words used before or after a particular linguistic unit.,8.1.2 Linguistic Context,figure 1) a half-length figure （像） 2) a historical figure （人物） 3) double figure （数字） 4) figure of speech （词格）,8.1.2 Linguistic Context,make God made the country, man made the town. (created, built) She will make a good teacher. (become) He is going to make us a report. (give),8.1.2 Linguistic Context,The meaning of make is affected by the grammatical structures. This is called grammatical context. Grammatical context is the grammatical structures in which a particular linguistic item is used.,8.2 The Role of Context 8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity,Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. When a word with multiple meanings is used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity, e.g.,8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity,He is a hard businessman. hard: 1) hard-working 2) difficult He is a hard businessman to deal with.,8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity,They saw her duck. 1) dodge 2) type of foul Revised: They saw her duck swimming in the pond. They saw her duck quickly. That saved her life.,8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity,47 The ball was good. 1) dancing party 2) round object Revised: The ball was good. I never danced like this before. The ball was good. I used it for a long time.,8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity,Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity, e.g. The fish is ready to eat. I like Mary better than Jean. (1)I like Mary better than Jean likes M. (2) I like Mary better than I like Jean.,8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity,The shooting of the hunter was horrible. (1) The hunter shot something in a horrible way. (2) The hunter was shot in a horrible way.,8.2.2 Indication of referents,This is the book I mentioned to you the other day. Now there is nothing we can do. Without context there is no way to tell what “this” refers to or the exact time “now” stands for.,8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity,Revised: He took Vanity Fair from a wooden shelf and said “This is the book I mentioned to you the other day.”,8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity,Revised: Water continued to rise and the whole family were driven to the attic (顶楼、阁楼） of the house. There was no other place to go. “Now there is nothing we can do,” said the father helplessly.,8.2.3 Provision of Clues for Inferring Word- meaning,Context may prove extremely valuable in guessing the meanings of new words. In many cases, when a new word (thought to be) appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints.,8.2.3 Provision of Clues for Inferring Word- meaning,The hints (context clues) might help the readers to grasp the concept or understand the idea. Context clues vary a great deal. There are six or seven major context clues.,8.2.3 Provision of Clues for Inferring Word- meaning,Perhaps the most startling theory to come out of kinesics, the study of body movement, was suggested by Professor Bird-whistell. 身势学 (definition),8.2.3 Provision of Clues for Inferring Word- meaning,Many United Nations employees are polyglots. Mary, for example, speaks five languages. (example),8.2.3 Provision of Clues for Inferring Word- meaning,Its just one more incredible result of the development of microprocessors微处理器 those tiny parts of a computer commo