Learning Strategies 学科英语 熊凤凤 张涵 Contents Definition of learning strategies Classification of learning strategies Good language learner studies Factors influencing choice of learning strategies The relationship between learning strategies and language learning Learner training Final comment Definition behaviors or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful self directed and enjoyable Oxford 1989 the behaviors and techniques learners adopt in their efforts to learn in a second language Muriel Saville Troike 2008 Characteristics referring to general approaches and specific actions or teniques being problem orientated involving linguistic behavior e g requesting the name of an object and non linguistic one e g pointing at an object so as to be told its name using it both in L1 and L2 learners are aware of and identify the strategies some behavioral observable some mental Some common terminology Tarone 1980 production strategy an attempt to use one s linguistic system efficiently and clearly with a minimum of effort communication strategy attempts to deal with problems of communication that have arisen in interaction language learning strategy an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence Some common terminology language learning strategies attempts to master new linguistic and sociolinguistic information about TL skill learning strategies attempts to become skilled person Some common terminology Stern 1983 strategies general and more or less deliberate approaches to learning techniques observable forms of language learning behavior evident in particular areas of learning Seliger 1984 strategies basic abstract categories of processing tactics variable and idiosyncratic learning activities Classification O Malley and Chamot 1990 Metacognitive involving attempts to regulate learning through planning monitoring and evaluating e g previewing concepts deciding in advance to attend specific aspects of input Cognitive involving analysis transformation or synthesis of learning materials e g predicting inferring Socio affective concerning ways in which learner interact with others e g seeking opportunities to interact with native speakers Classification Oxford 1990 1 Direct memory strategies grouping classifying cognitive strategies practising repeating compensation strategies switching to mother tongue 2 Indirect metacognitive strategies e g setting goals affective strategies e g taking risks wisely social strategies e g asking for clarification Classification Purpura 1999 whether relating to comprehending processes storing memory processes or using retrieval processes Cohen and Chi skills vocabualry translation Good language learner studies StudyLearnersMethod Rubin 1975learners of mixed ages in classroom settings Observation video camera Naiman et al 19781 34 graduates L2 learners many multilingual 2 students of L2 French in grades 8 10 12 1 interview questionnaire semi directed and directed parts 2 classroom obseration schedule not successful Rubin 1981young adults in classroom settings 1 classroom obseration 2 obseration of learner performance on specific language learning tasks 3 unstructual self reports 4 directed self report Good language learner studies Reiss 1983college learners of L2questionnaire presenting 3 hypothetical learning situations Huang and Van Naersson 1985 20high and 20 low proficiency Chinese learners of English in China 1 written quesionnaire on ues of formal practice functional practice and monitoring Reiss 1985college learners at elementary and intermediate levels some identified as good language learners 1 general questionnaire about personality variables and learning strategies 2 strategies questionnaire listing 19 strategies from which students selected the ones they used most often Good language learner studies Gillette 1987two beginners of L2 Spanish successful learners of L2 French 1 extensive classroom observation 2 classroom notes from one of the learners 3 attitude motivation questionnaire 4 interview 5 teachers comments Lennon 19894 German learning L2 English in UK 1 written answers to general questionnaire 2 personal interview Major traits of good learners concern for language form and also meaning concern for communication awareness of the learning process capacity to use strategies flexibly in accordance with task requirements sysematic plan and particular objectives critical self awareness or self efficacy Factors influencing choice of learning strategies Leaner factors 1 Age Ehrman and Oxford 1989 Young children empoly strategies in a task specific manner Older children and adult generalized strategies 2 Motivation Oxford and Nyikos 1989 Highly motivated learners used more strategies relating to formal practice functional practice general study and conversation input elicitation than poorly motivated learner Learner factors 3 Learning style Littlemore 2001 Those leaners who had a holistic cognitive style were more likely to utilize hol