Rhetorical Fallacies,English Rhetoric and Writing,In ordinary usage, the term fallacy refers to mistaken beliefs as well as to the faulty reasoning. In logic, the term is generally used to refer only to a form of technically incorrect argument, especially if that argument appears to be valid or convincing. So here we also define a fallacy as a logical argument or rhetorical device that appears to be sound but is truly unsound when examined more closely.,Define “fallacy”,Fallacies appealing to Logic ,Begging the Question Hasty Generalization False Analogies Post Hoc Non Sequitur Either-Or Fallacy,Fallacies Appealing to Emotion ,Appeal to Fear Appeal to Flattery Appeal to Pity Appeal to Popularity Appeal to Tradition Bandwagon appeal Red Herring,Fallacies Appealing to Credibility ,Ad Hominem Appeal to Authority,Fallacies in logical reasoning,1) “Non sequitur”: The phrase means “it does not follow” and applies to error of reasoning in which the conclusion does not follow from the evidence presented. Example: Smoking cigarettes is dangerous, but nearly everything in life has some danger, such as driving a car or crossing the street. So, if you are willing to drive a car, you should also be willing to smoke. If those protesters really loved their country, they wouldnt question the government.,2) “Begging the question”: The phrase means to assume the truth of a point that needs to be proved. Such an argument is circular. Example: “This senseless language requirement should be dropped.” “Have you stopped taking drugs?” “When did you stop beating your wife?” “Why is private development of resources so much more efficient than any public control?”,3) “Post Hoc”: The phrase in Latin refers to the generalization from insufficient evidence as “not proving to be the case”, or “after this, therefore because of this. Example: I took an aspirin and took a nap; then my headache disappeared. So the aspirin cured my headache. Since they abolished capital punishment, the crime rate there has increased, which tells us that capital punishment must be restored.,4) The either-or fallacy: An argument assumes a false dilemma when it assumes that one of two cases must be true, where in fact there are other options as well. Also called: Oversimplification. Examples: Youre either with us, or against us. Either we must ban X or the American way of life will collapse. Either you drink Burpsy Cola, or you will have no friends and no social life.,5) Hasty generalization: If a writer derives a general conclusion on the basis of just a few examples that are not representative of all possible situations, cases, or scenarios, then s/he is guilty of hasty generalization. Example: I once got a bad carton of milk from that store, so Ill never shop there again.,6) False analogy: If a writer uses a comparison that is very weak, inappropriate, or based on a misunderstanding, then s/he is using false analogy. Example: College is much like high school. Each has 50 minute classes. Each has a different teacher for different subjects. So there is no difference between them.,Fallacies related to pathos,1) Appeal to Emotion: This fallacy is committed when someone manipulates peoples emotions in order to get them to accept a claim as being true. Example: The new UltraSkinny diet will make you feel great. No longer be troubled by your weight. Enjoy the admiring stares of the opposite sex. Revel in your new freedom from fat. You will know true happiness if you try our diet!,Fear: If you dont believe in God, God sure wont be happy about that! Pity: I deserve an A in the class because my mom was really sick and so I couldnt concentrate Vanity: Intelligent people like yourself deserve fill in any product here,2) Bandwagon Appeal : “Everybody is doing it.” This fallacy asserts that, since the majority of people believes an argument or chooses a particular course of action, the argument must be true, or the course of action must be followed, or the decision must be the best choice. Example: The Earth must be flat. Millions of people know that it is. Are you trying to tell them that they are all mistaken fools? (Isabella to Columbus) 85% of consumers purchase IBM computers rather than Macintosh; all those people cant be wrong. IBM must make the best computers. Why be the only parent on your block whose kids dont have the Water Widget Fun Set?,3) A Red Herring attempts to distract an audience by shifting attention away from an important issue. Example: I should not pay a fine for reckless driving. There are many other people on the street who are dangerous criminals and rapists, and the police should be chasing them, not harassing a decent tax-paying citizen like me.” Our relief program has admittedly lost track of some donations, but just think of all the suffering children weve saved from starvation and disease.,Fallacious use of ethos,Ad Hominem: a claim or argument is rejected on the basis of some irrelevant fact about the author of or the