Chapter 31. Stonehenge (史前巨石阵)：Stonehengeis aprehistoricmonumentinWiltshire, England, about 2 miles (3.2km) west ofAmesburyand 8 miles (13km) north ofSalisbury. One of the most famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is the remains of a ring ofstanding stonesset withinearthworks.2. Julius Caesar (尤利乌斯凯撒)：Gaius Julius Caesar2(Classical Latin:a.i.s ju.l.s kaj.sar,3July 100BC4 15 March 44BC)5was aRoman general,statesman,Consuland notable author ofLatinprose. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of theRoman Republicand the rise of theRoman Empire.3. Hadrians Wall (哈德良长城)：Hadrians Wallwas a defensive fortification inRoman Britain, begun in AD 122 during the rule of emperorHadrian. In addition to its military role, gates through the wall served as customs posts.4. Hastings (黑斯廷)：TheBattle of Hastingswas fought on 14 October 1066 between the Norman-French army of DukeWilliam II of Normandyand an English army under theAnglo-SaxonKingHarold II, during theNorman conquest of England. It took place approximately 7miles (11 kilometres) north-west ofHastings, close to the present-day town ofBattle, East Sussex, and was a decisiveNormanvictory.Norman Conquest (诺曼征服)：TheNorman conquest of Englandwas the 11th-century invasion and occupation ofEnglandby an army ofNorman,Breton, andFrenchsoldiers led by Duke William II ofNormandy, laterWilliam the Conqueror.5. Heptarchy (七国时代)：TheHeptarchy is a collective name applied to theAnglo-Saxonkingdoms of south, east, and centralGreat Britainduringlate antiquityand theearly Middle Ages, conventionally identified as seven:Northumbria,Mercia,East Anglia,Essex,Kent,SussexandWessex. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms eventually unified into theKingdom of England.6. Alfred the Great (阿尔弗雷德大帝)：Alfred the Great(Old English:lfrd,lfrd, elf counsel; 849 26 October 899) was King ofWessexfrom 871 to 899.He is the only English monarch to be accorded theepithetthe Great.23Alfred was the firstKing of the West Saxonsto style himself King of the Anglo-Saxons.7. Domesday Book (末日审判书)：Domesday Bookis a manuscript that records the great survey of much ofEnglandand parts ofWalescompleted in 1086. The survey was executed forWilliam I of England(William the Conqueror): While spending the Christmas time of 1085 inGloucester, William had deep speech with his counsellors and sent men all over England to each shire to find out what or how much each landholder had in land and livestock, and what it was worthUnit4 1 普通法 A Common law legal system is a system of law characterized by case law which is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals.1 Common law systems also include statutes enacted by legislative bodies, though those statutes typically either codify judicial decisions or fill in areas of the law not covered by case law. 2 百年战争 The Hundred Years War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France for control of the French throne. Many allies of both sides were also drawn into the conflict.3 黑死病 The Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 75 to 200 million people and peaking in Europe in the years 134850 CE.Unit51 枢密院 A privy council is a body that advises the head of state of a nation, typically, but not always, in the context of a monarchic government. The word privy means private or secret; thus, a privy council was originally a committee of the monarchs closest advisors to give confidential advice on affairs of state. 2 血腥玛丽 Mary I (18 February 1516 17 November 1558) was Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. Her executions of Protestants caused her opponents to give her the sobriquet Bloody Mary.3 无敌舰队 The Spanish Armada (Spanish: Grande y Felicsima Armada or Armada Invencible, literally Great and Most Fortunate Navy or Invincible Fleet) was the Spanish fleet that sailed against England in 1588. 4 人文主义 Humanism is a group of philosophies and ethical perspectives which emphasize the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers individual thought and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over established doctrine or faith (fideism). Unit61 君权神授说 The divine right of kings, or divine-right theory of kingship, is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving the right to rule directly from the will of God. 2 英国内战 The English Civil War (16421651) was a series of armed conflicts and political problems between Parliamentarians (Roundheads) and Royalists (Cavaliers). The first (164246) and second (164849) civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters