管理经济学,陶志刚,1,The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing定价的策略和战术,The Cost-Plus Delusion加成定价法的谬误,Financial prudence 谨慎财务 How to determine mark-up? 如何决定加成比例?,管理经济学,2,陶志刚,Value-Based Pricing根据消费者购买意愿定价,In 1964, Ford introduced Mustang, at a base price of $2,368, and made a net profit of $1.1 billion in just the first two years 1964年福特推出定价为2368美元的Mustang车来满足消费者的需求,在最初的两年间净利达11亿美元 伦敦“疯人”饭店 可口可乐的新型贩卖机 Coca-Colas New Vending Machine,管理经济学,3,陶志刚,Key Factors For an Effective Pricing Strategy有效订价策略的决定因素,customers willingness to pay for the good or service 消费者的购买意愿 cost of providing the good or service 生产成本 degree of competition 竞争程度,管理经济学,4,陶志刚,Generic Pricing Strategies普遍适用的定价策略,Skimming: setting price high relative to the economic value of most potential customers 撇脂策略: 设定高价格，为少数优质客户服务 Penetration: setting price low relative to the economic value in order to gain from high market share or volume 簿利多销策略: 以低廉的价格来获取庞大的市场份额或销量,管理经济学,5,陶志刚,Determinants of Demand什么因素决定消费者购买意愿,Preference 消费者偏好 - the more the better, but the more the less desirable 越多越好,但越多越不热切 Income 收入 Prices of other goods 相关产品(替代品,互补品)的价格 Advertising 广告,管理经济学,6,陶志刚,Foe or Friend是互替还是互补,Traditional Bookstores V. Online Bookstores 传统书店对网上书店 Traditional camera V. Digital Camera 传统相机对数码相机 Traditional newspapers V. “Newer” Newspapers 传统媒体对新媒体,管理经济学,7,陶志刚,How to secure complements?怎样才能得到互补品的支持?,Agreements with firms producing complementary goods 激励其他公司提供互补品 Self provision through acquisition of firms producing complementary goods 通过收购相关公司,自己提供互补品 Government provision 寻求政府帮助,管理经济学,8,陶志刚,Special Determinants For Demand Of Durable Goods耐用品需求的特定因素,Expectation about future prices and income 对未来价格和收入的期望 Financing costs 融资成本,管理经济学,9,陶志刚,Factors influencing market demand: 影响市场需求的因素,Income level and distribution 收入高低和分布 Population and demographics 人口多少及构成 Market saturation 市场渗透率 Network externality 外部效用,管理经济学,10,陶志刚,Price Elasticity of Demand需求价格弹性, 定义: 1% 的价格增长所引起的需求的变化量 需求价格弹性 = 需求量的变化 价格的变化 Demand elasticity captures both customers willingness to pay and also the degree of competition 消费者购买意愿及市场竞争程度都反映在需求弹性上,管理经济学,11,陶志刚,Price Elasticity: Determinants价格弹性: 决定因素,availability of direct or indirect substitutes 直接或间接替代品的多少 Difficult comparison effect 不可比较效应 Perceived substitutes effect 被认为的替代效应 Price-quality effect 价格质量效应 Inventory effect 库存效应,管理经济学,12,陶志刚,More on Determinants of Price Elasticity 再谈价格弹性的决定因素,cost / benefit of economizing 寻找替代品的成本及收益 Engine oil 引擎油 Michelin Type 米其林轮胎 buyers prior commitments 买方是否有事前的投入 separation of buyer and payee 购买者和付款者的分离,管理经济学,13,陶志刚,Optimal Pricing: Demand Elasticity 最优定价要素之一:需求弹性,Demand elasticity captures both customers willingness to pay and also the degree of competition 消费者购买意愿及市场竞争程度都反映在需求弹性上 Always set price so that demand is elastic 总是设立价格, 使需求具有弹性 If demand more elastic, then lower incremental margin percentage and lower the price relative to marginal cost 如果需求弹性较大,边际毛利率就低,价格相对于边际成本就低,管理经济学,14,陶志刚,Optimal Pricing: Marginal Costs 最优定价要素之二:边际成本,Fixed costs V. Marginal costs 固定成本对边际成本 Why only marginal costs matter? 为什么边际成本(运营成本)那么重要? - Telecoms 电讯行业 - Air travel 航空运输业,管理经济学,15,陶志刚,Relevant Marginal Costs 相关的边际成本,relevant costs may be hidden 相关成本往往被传统损益表忽略 irrelevant costs may be shown in accounts 不相关成本则可能出现在传统损益表,管理经济学,16,陶志刚,Wing On Group, 1993永安集团, 1993,管理经济学,17,陶志刚,Shanghai Petrochemical, 1994上海石化，1994,Profit: 1.78 billion yuan 利润: 17.8亿人民币 The company received 4.5 million metric tons of crude at a government-controlled price of 689 yuan (as compared to free-market price of 1100 yuan), the opportunity cost of which is 1.85 billion yuan. 公司获得450万吨政府补贴的原油, 机会成本为18.5亿人民币。,管理经济学,18,陶志刚,Opportunity Cost 机会成本,definition - net revenue from best alternative course of action 定义：所有被放弃的可能方案中能带来的最大净收益。,管理经济学,19,陶志刚,Debt to Equity 债转股,Investment by the Singaporean government in a petrochemical plant in the 1980s 80年代新加坡政府对石化企业的贷款 Stated-owned enterprises in China 中国国有企业,管理经济学,20,陶志刚,Economic Value Added经济附加价值,任何融资都有成本：借贷要付息, 股权要回报 EVA = revenue - all costs (including cost of equity capital) 经济附加价值=收入-所有成本(包括资本金的成本),管理经济学,21,陶志刚,Apple Computer 苹果计算机,1988年夏: 苹果用每芯片38美元共计几亿美元的代价购买 1Megabit 的DRAM晶片 1989年元月: 市场价格跌到23美元; 为给Machitosh定价, 1 Megabit的DRAM库存该是多少成本呢?,管理经济学,22,陶志刚,Sunk Cost沉没成本,定义：已经或承诺支出、无法挽回的成本,管理经济学,23,陶志刚,A Common Excuse不敌外来竞争的共同借口：需承担大批退休员工的福利,Japanese car manufacturers vis-vis the U.S. auto makers 美日汽车公司之间的竞争 Stated-owned enterprises versus foreign-invested companies in China 中国国企与外资企业之间的竞争,管理经济学,24,陶志刚,Uniform Pricing: Shortcomings 单一订价策略的缺点,leaves buyers with a lot of surplus 给购买者留下很多剩余 does not sell to every potential buyer 并没有出售给每个潜在的购买者,管理经济学,25,陶志刚,Complete Price Discrimination完全价格歧视,price each unit at buyers benefit and sell quantity where MB = MC 每单位的价格订为购买者的最高支付意愿；卖到价格等于边际成本 maximum profit (利润最大化) implementation: must know entire marginal benefit curves 实施: 必须知道每个消费者的支付意愿情况,管理经济学,26,陶志刚,Hysterectomy in Hong Kong香港的子宫切除术,price ranging from HK$20,000 to HK$200,000 even for same operati