Chapter 1Prescriptive（规范的） -lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language (traditional grammar)Descriptive（描述性的） - describe/analyze the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Synchronic（同步的） study- description of a language at some point of time in history (modern linguistics) Diachronic（历时的） study- description of a language as it changes through time (studies historical development of language over a period of time) Langue（语言） - the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by; abstract; doesnt change frequently.Parole（言语） - the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; concrete; varies from person to person, from situation to situation.Saussure(索绪尔) thinks that parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts for systematic investigation, what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Competence - the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language Performance - the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speakers competence, not his performance. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.必考：Chomsky的语言学来源：philosophy, mathematics, psychologyLanguage: Language is a system, systematic(系统的) e.g. iblk is not a possible combined./ Been he wounded has is not a grammatically accepted sentence. Language is arbitrary(任意的)：no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with./ A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. Language is primarily vocal. Language is human-specific(人类特有的).Arbitrariness（任意）：no logical connection between sounds and meanings.Productivity（生产力）/creativity（创造力）：peculiar（特权） to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.Duality(double articulation)： Lower level-sounds (meaningless) Higher level-meaning (larger units of meaning) Displacement（取代）：provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.(不受时空、地理的局限)Chapter 2 Phonology 音位学2.1 The phonic medium of language2.2 Phonetics 语音学1. what is phoneticsis defined as the study of the phonic medium of languageis concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languagesstudies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. p bilabial, stop. Three branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics发音语音学-from the speakers point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”Auditory phonetics听觉语音学-from the hearers point of view, “how sounds are perceived”Acoustic phonetics声学语音学-from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another2. Speech organsthree important areas: Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔- the throat; Oral cavity 口腔- the mouth; Nasal cavity 鼻腔- the nose. 认识、了解1. Lips 唇2. Teeth3. Teeth ridge (alveolus)牙槽4. Hard palate 硬腭5. Soft palate (velum)软腭6. Uvula小舌7. Tip of tongue 舌尖8. Blade of tongue 舌面9. Back of tongue 舌根10. Vocal cords 声带11. Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔12. Nasal cavity 鼻腔3. Orthographic 拼写正确的，正字法representation of speech sounds International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)国际音标区分两者（选择题）Broad transcription - used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear l, pit Narrow transcription - used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark l , aspirated p Some major articulatory variables Voicing- voiced & voiceless浊化音 清音 Nasality - nasal & non-nasal 鼻音 Aspiration - aspirated & unaspirated 送气音 不送气音4. Classification of English speech sounds 考点：元/辅音的划分 表记住Vowels 元音 Consonants 辅音（书无了解一下The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.）重点Classification of consonants 辅音的分类根据发音方式the manner of articulation 爆破音stops/plosives: p, b, t, d, k, g; 膜擦音fricatives: f, v, s, z, W, T, F, V, h; 塞擦音affricates: tF, dV; liquids: l(lateral), r; 鼻音nasals: m, n, N; glides/semivowels: w, j. 根据发音位置the place of articulation 双唇音bilabial: p, b, m, w; 唇齿音labiodental: f , v; 齿音dental: W,