形态学初探,1. Introduction,Words carry meaningSentences are made up with different classes of wordsWords are the fundamental building block of a languageLEXICON vs VOCABULARY vs WORD,VOCABULARY(词汇、词汇量) a. linguistics uses this term in its everyday sense, reserving for its technical study the use of terms beginning with lexi-. b. all the words that a person knows or uses.,LEXICON(全部词汇、词库) a. In its most general sense, the term is synonymous with vocabulary. A dictionary can be seen as a set of lexical entries. b. (linguistics) all the words and phrases used in a particular language or subject; all the words and phrases used and known by a particular person or group of people.,WORD： a. A unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, in both spoken and written language. b. However, there are several difficulties in arriving at a consistent use of the term in relation to other categories of linguistic description, and in the comparison of languages of different structural types. These problems relate mainly to word identification and definition.,They include, for example, decisions over word boundaries (e.g. is a unit such as washing machine two words, or is it one, to be written washing-machine?),What is morphology? a. The systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called MORPHOLOGY. b. It investigates the internal structure and rules of morphemes by which words are formed, e.g. strength + en.,Linguists use the term morphology to refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.Morphology: The branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of the morpheme construct. It is generally divided into two fields: the study of inflections (inflectional morphology) and of word-formation(lexical or derivational morphology),2. Morphemesthe minimal units of meaning,Morpheme is: a.the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning; b. a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and s in boys, check and ing in checking ect.,Types of morpheme: a. affix, root and stem affix: the collective term for the types of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), i.e. affixes are a type of bound morpheme.,Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three types, depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word: those which are added to the beginning of a root/stem (prefixes), e.g. unhappy; those which follow (suffixes), e.g. happiness; and those which occur within a root/stem (infixes).,root: A root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity; it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. From a semantic point of view, the root generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.,stem: a stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems.,stem VS root The stem may consist solely of a single root morpheme (i.e. a simple stem, as in man), or of two root morphemes (e.g. a compound stem, as in blackbird), or of a root morpheme plus a derivational affix (i.e. a complex stem, as in manly,unmanly, manliness). All have in common the notion that it is to the stem that inflectional affixes are attached.,b. free morpheme and bound morpheme Free morpheme are those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, e.g. dog, nation, close,Bound morpheme: 1) may not occur alone; 2) must appear with at least one different morpheme. e.g. dis- temper- ed,c. derivational affix and inflectional affix Derivational affixes change the grammatical class of morphemes to which they are attached, e.g. -tion is a noun-forming derivational suffix. Often they have independently stateable lexical meanings (e.g. mini-, sub-), though these are not always easy to identify (e.g. -er).,Allomorph Many of the morphemes of the language appear in different forms, depending on the context in which they appear. The morpheme which expresses plurality in English, for instance, appears in several variants: capcaps, loglogs, forceforces, mousemice, sheepsheep, etc. Each of these variant forms the voiceless s of caps, the voiced z of logs, the irregular shape of mice, and so on would be said to be an allomorph of the plural morpheme.,3. What is word?,Word and lexical items WORD is a general, covering term (boy and boys are one word) and LEXICAL ITEM (or LEXEME词位) is a specific term (boy and boys are two lexical items).,Word 1 write Word 2 fatLexical 1 write fatLexical 2 writes fatterLexical 3 wrote fattestLexical 4 writing Lexical 5 written,