一、绪论语言学的定义语言学的研究范畴几对基本概念语言的定义语言的甄别特征What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics 语音学Phonology 音系学Morphology 形态学Syntax 句法学Semantics 语义学Pragmatics语用学Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Psycholinguistics 心理语言学Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for correct behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on high written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:（1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution（2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeares play Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.）Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1） arbitrariness 武断性2） productivity 创造性3） duality 二重性4） displacement 移位性5） cultural transmission 文化传递性二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。Phonetics 语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds language.Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 and acoustic phonetics 声学语音学Organs of speech 发音器官The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔the throatThe oral cavity 口腔the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔the noseVibration of the vocal cords （声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing 浊音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 辅音。单词补充：01） velum: The soft palate. 软腭02） uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块03） larynx: n. 喉04） vocal cord: 声带05） membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官06） the soft palate: 软腭07） the hard palate: 硬腭08） the teeth ridge: 齿龈09） alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽颚骨处的牙床10） the teeth: 牙齿11） the lips: 上下唇12） blade of tongue: 舌面13） back of tongue: 舌根14） pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔15） nasal cavity: 鼻腔16） velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as （g） in good and （k） in cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在 good中的（g）以及在 cup 中的（k）17） the tip of the tongue: 舌尖18） the upper front teeth: 上齿19） the roof of the mouth: 上颚20） the lower lip: 下唇音标宽式和严式标音法International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）The vowels （monophthongs and diphthongs） 元音（单元音&双元音）The constants 辅音Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. （in dictionaries and teaching textbooks）用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.但实际上， 同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同， 比如 Pit和 spit中的/P/音发音就不一样。在宽式标音的基础上， 再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音法。Classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any