1 What is the morpheme? 词素The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, /in the composition of words ,not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.Words are formed by morphemes, a word may be composed of one or more morphemes.One morpheme-fruit Two morphemes-fruit+ful Three morphemes-un+fruit+ful2 A synchronic approach and a diachronic approach are approaches to the study of a language.3 an allomorph 词素变体 is one or two or more complimentary morphs which magnifies a morpheme in its different phonological environments 4 Free morphemes and bound morphemes 自由词素和粘着词素A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning.A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme5A root 词根 is that part of a word-form that remains when all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. (it conveys the main lexical meaning)6 基本的构词方法：Word-formation（1）派生法-derivation Definition: Derivation or affixation is a method of word-formation by which new words are created by adding affixes( prefix or suffix or both) or combining form to the base（2）复合法-Compounding/composition 定义 A word-formation process in which words are formed by putting two or more words together. （3）转化法-Conversion /functional shift/ transmutation/zero-derivation 其他构词方法（4）缩略法-abbreviation/shortening 包括 clipping 截短词(apocope 尾, aphaeresis 首，front and back clipping,首尾，syncope 腰）initialism 首字母缩略,acronym 首字母拼音，blending 拼缀词 =telescopic word =portmanteau word 首字母缩略词不可以读出来 IQ=intelligence quotient BBC=British Broadcasting Corporation 首字母拼音词是可以读出来的，例如 SALT 、WASP，dinky 拼缀法 Camcorder 摄像机=camera 照相机+recorder 录音机（5）逆生法-Back-formation donation donate emotion emote （6）拟声法-onomatopoeia 指 words containing sounds similar to the noises they describe声音的来源有人类，动物，其他事物拟声词的作用：Imitating the sound and being used as a verbImitating the sound and referring to the thing making the soundPrefixation 前缀法 Suffixation 加后缀第四单元 词义理据和词义的组成1 词义：The relationship between language and the world Meaning (concept)wordForm Referent(word, sentence ).object in the world 词的无理拒性又叫随意性 arbitrariness 2Motivation 理据 is the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning （1 ） Phonetic motivation 语音分析 例如 the moo of a cow（2 ） Morphological motivation 构词分析 例如 readable 看后缀可知道其意思 daydream 复合词 不是所有的复合词都是有理据的如 eggplant 茄子（3 ） Semantic motivation 语义分析 例如 the leg of a table earn bread （4 ） Etymological motivation 词源分析 例如 汉语火车开动需要火的3 词义的组成（1） Grammatical meaning （2） Lexical meaning- conceptual / referential meaning 概念意义-associative meaning 关联意义关联意义分为 4 种：connotative meaning 内涵意义（mother-female parent 想到 love, care, and tenderness )stylistic meaning 文体意义（正式和非正式和中性）affective meaning 情感意义（collocative meaning 搭配意义（ pretty girl 和 handsome boy） 第五单元一词多义和同形异义1 一词多义-Polysemy is a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings Two approaches to study polysemy -diachronic and synchronic 历时和共时2 一词多义的种类Original vs. Extended -candidate pen General vs. Specific -artist（艺术家和美术家） gas(气体和煤气）Abstract vs. Concrete-government（治国之道和政府） beauty pride Literal vs. Metaphoric 字面和比喻意义-cool flaw（裂隙和缺点） reflect(反射和反映）3 同形异义 Homonymyhmnimi Same form (either pronunciation or spelling or both) but different meaning 同形异义的种类（1） Perfect homonyms (Words identical in pronunciation and spelling but different in meaning) （bear 熊和忍耐，sound 声音和健全的)（2） Homophones(Words identical in pronunciation but different in spelling and meaning)(air and heir, right and write and rite) （3） Homographs(Words identical in spelling but different in pronunciation and meaning)(minute 分钟-minute 微笑的, tear-tear 哭和撕)4 歧义 Ambiguity: more than one interpretation, caused by polysemy or homonymy. Eg. Engaged 含混 Vagueness: not clear meaning tall 不知道多高才算高,either.or. Neighbour Johns train之间的区别：歧义是由于一词多义和同形异义造成的，同一个词有不同的解释。而含混的词只有一种解释，但是词义的程度，范围和所指不明确。含混是模糊性（fuzziness) 的特殊形式第六单元:词义关系 1 同义关系 -synonymy synonyms 类型分为完全同义词和部分同义词-perfect synonyms and partial synonyms 绝对同义词导致迟早有个会废弃不用。如 submarine 和 U-boat 有些反义词却是近义 loosen 和 unloosen, valuable 和invaluable 部分同义词例如 couple,pair,yoke,brace 一组，由于概念意义和关联意义不同导致同义词的来源：1) Borrowing(answer-reply) 2)Dialects and regional English(liquor-whiskey)3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words（sanitary engineer 指代清洁工）4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions (fall out=quarrel）2 词汇变体 lexical variation 读音和拼写上都有些区别，但是词义和用法上毫无区别，几乎是同一个词，如 whatever-whatsoever favour-favor connection-connexion philanthropy 3 误用词语 malapropism 由于两个词的发音和拼写相近而出错，如 I will devote myself to philandering4 反义关系 Antonymy Antonyms 种类：1)绝对反义词 contradictory terms=binary antonyms=complementaries) 没有任何中间状态例如 dead-alive true-false 2)两极反义词 contrary terms =gradable antonyms