五、外文资料翻译Stress and Strain1. Introduction to Mechanics of MaterialsMechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of loading. It is a field of study that is known by a variety of names, including “strength of materials” and “mechanics of deformable bodies”. The solid bodies considered in this book include axially-loaded bars, shafts, beams, and columns, as well as structures that are assemblies of these components. Usually the objective of our analysis will be the determination of the stresses, strains, and deformations produced by the loads; if these quantities can be found for all values of load up to the failure load, then we will have obtained a complete picture of the mechanics behavior of the body.Theoretical analyses and experimental results have equally important roles in the study of mechanics of materials . On many occasion we will make logical derivations to obtain formulas and equations for predicting mechanics behavior, but at the same time we must recognize that these formulas cannot be used in a realistic way unless certain properties of the been made in the laboratory. Also , many problems of importance in engineering cannot be handled efficiently by theoretical means, and experimental measurements become a practical necessity. The historical development of mechanics of materials is a fascinating blend of both theory and experiment, with experiments pointing the way to useful results in some instances and with theory doing so in others. Such famous men as Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) made experiments to adequate to determine the strength of wires , bars , and beams , although they did not develop any adequate theories (by todays standards ) to explain their test results . By contrast , the famous mathematician Leonhard Euler(1707-1783) developed the mathematical theory any of columns and calculated the critical load of a column in 1744 , long before any experimental evidence existed to show the significance of his results . Thus , Eulers theoretical results remained unused for many years, although today they form the basis of column theory.The importance of combining theoretical derivations with experimentally determined properties of materials will be evident theoretical derivations with experimentally determined properties of materials will be evident as we proceed with our study of the subject. In this section we will begin by discussing some fundamental concepts , such as stress and strain , and then we will investigate bathe behaving of simple structural elements subjected to tension , compression , and shear.2. StressThe concepts of stress and strain can be illustrated in elementary way by considering the extension of a prismatic bar see Fig.1.4(a). A prismatic bar is one that has cross section throughout its length and a straight axis. In this illustration the bar is assumed to be loaded at its ends by axis forces P that produce a uniform stretching , or tension , of the bar . By making an artificial cut (section mm) through the bar at right angles to its axis , we can isolate part of the bar as a free bodyFig.1.4(b). At the right-hand end the force P is applied , and at the other end there are forces representing the action of the removed portion of the bar upon the part that remain . These forces will be continuously distributed over the cross section , analogous to the continuous distribution of hydrostatic pressure over a submerged surface . The intensity of force , that is , the per unit area, is called the stress and is commonly denoted by the Greek letter . Assuming that the stress has a uniform distribution over the cross sectionsee Fig.1.4(b), we can readily see that its resultant is equal to the intensity times the cross-sectional area A of the bar. Furthermore , from the equilibrium of the body show in Fig.1.4(b),Fig.1.4 Prismatic bar in tensionwe can also see that this resultant must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force P. Hence, we obtain =P/A ( 1.3 )as the equation for the uniform stress in a prismatic bar . This equation shows that stress has units of force divided by area -for example , Newtons per square millimeter(N/mm) or pounds of per square inch (psi). When the bar is being stretched by the forces P ,as shown in the figure , the resulting stress is a tensile stress; if the force are reversed in direction, causing the bat to be compressed , they are called compressive stress. A necessary condition for Eq.(1.3) to be valid is that the stress must be uniform over the cross section of the bat . This condition will be realized if the axial force p acts through the centroid of the cross section , as can be demonstrated by statics. When the load P doses not act at thus centroid , bending of the bar will result, and a more complicated analysis