0830 - 现代语言学现代语言学现代语言学何兆熊、梅德明主编 外语教学与研究出版社A Detailed Note for Modern LinguisticsChapter 1: Introduction1.Define the following terms:1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2).General linguistics: The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.3).Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.4).Synchronic study: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeares time is a synchronic study.5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeares time is a diachronic study.6).Language competence: The ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. A transformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.7).Language performance: performance is the actual realization of the ideal language users knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 8).Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11).Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.12).Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13).Duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).Displacement: language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.15).Cultural transmission: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.16).Design features: It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication2.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics investigates not any particular language, but languages in general. Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，真实的) language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually used, formulating some hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.3.What are the branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？)Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: 1)General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study 2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication 3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication ： 4)Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words 5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences 6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language. 7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in the context of use 8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society 9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind. 10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching, especially the teaching