Energy andAir PollutionEnergy andAir PollutionAnnexesCountry ProfilesCONTENTSTABLEOFPART APART BGlobal Energy and Air Pollution TrendsE E E E E EOE E OE E E E E EOE E E E E E E E E E E E E E E D/I /ID/ID/ID/ID/ID/ID/ID/ID/ICD/ID/ICD/I /ID/ICD/I ICD/ID/D/D/D/CD/ / /CD/CD/CD/CD/CD/CD/D D D DCDCDCDCD D DCDCDCD DCDCDCDCDCDCDCDCD DCDCDCDCD DCDCDCD DCDCD DCDCDCDCDC C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C CEA, E E E E E20168910123574AnnexesIndiaSoutheast AsiaAfricaEnergy and air pollutionOutlook for air pollutionEnergy action for cleaner airMexicoChinaUnited StatesEuropean Union610 World Energy Outlook 2016 | Special Report Foreword 3 Acknowledgements 5 Executive summary 13 Part A: Global Energy and Air Pollution Trends 17 Energy and air pollution 19 Introduction 20 Air pollution: causes, concentrations and effects 25 Causes 25 Concentrations 28 Effects 32 The role of energy in air pollution 39 Fossil-fuel production 40 Stationary sources 43 Transport 49 Buildings 55 Outlook for air pollution 57 Introduction: framing the scenarios 58 Policies to tackle energy-related air pollution 59 Scenario definitions 62 Outlook for energy-related air pollution in the New Policies Scenario 67 Air pollutant trends by region 69 Air pollutant trends by sector 72 Towards cleaner air: energy-related air pollution in the Clean Air Scenario 75 Air pollutant trends by region 78 Air pollutant trends by sector 81 Health benefits and costs of improving air quality 83 Health benefits of cleaner air 84 Cost of air pollution mitigation 92 Energy action for cleaner air 95 Three steps to cleaner air 96 Setting an ambitious long-term air quality goal 96 Putting in place a clean air strategy for the energy sector 101 Effective monitoring, enforcement, evaluation and communication 108 Aligning clean air policies with energy policy objectives 114 Clean air and climate change 114 Clean air and energy access 118 Energy security and import bills 121 1 2 3 Table of Contents 11 Part B: Country Profiles 123 United States 125 The energy and air quality context 125 The outlook for air quality to 2040: the New Policies Scenario 130 Improving the outlook for air quality to 2040: the Clean Air Scenario 138 Mexico 141 The energy and air quality context 141 The outlook for air quality to 2040: the New Policies Scenario 143 Improving the outlook for air quality to 2040: the Clean Air Scenario 149 European Union 153 The energy and air quality context 154 The outlook for air quality to 2040: the New Policies Scenario 157 Improving the outlook for air quality to 2040: the Clean Air Scenario 165 China 169 The energy and air quality context 170 The outlook for air quality to 2040: the New Policies Scenario 172 Improving the outlook for air quality to 2040: the Clean Air Scenario 184 India 189 The energy and air quality context 190 The outlook for air quality to 2040: the New Policies Scenario 193 Improving the outlook for air quality to 2040: the Clean Air Scenario 204 Southeast Asia 209 The energy and air quality context 209 The outlook for air quality to 2040: the New Policies Scenario 214 Improving the outlook for air quality to 2040: the Clean Air Scenario 224 Africa 229 The energy and air quality context 230 The outlook for air quality to 2040: the New Policies Scenario 233 Improving the outlook for air quality to 2040: the Clean Air Scenario 240 ANNEXES 243 Annex A. Definitions 245 Annex B. References 253 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Executive Summary 13 Executive Summary Air pollution is a major public health crisis, with many of its root causes and cures to be found in the energy sector. Around 6.5 million deaths are attributed each year to poor air quality, making this the worlds fourth-largest threat to human health, behind high blood pressure, dietary risks and smoking. Without changes to the way that the world produces and uses energy, the ruinous toll from air pollution on human life is set to rise. That is why this World Energy Outlook (WEO) Special Report is dedicated, for the first time, to the links between energy, air pollution and health. It sets out in detail the scale, causes and effects of the problem and the ways in which the energy sector can contribute to a solution. Energy production and use, mostly from unregulated, poorly regulated or inefficient fuel combustion, are the single most important man-made sources of air pollutant emissions: 85% of particulate matter and almost all of the sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides. These three pollutants are responsible for the most widespread impacts of air pollution, either directly or once transformed into other pollutants via chemical reactions in the atmosphere. They are emitted mainly as a result of: ? Poverty: the wood and other solid fuels that more than 2.7 billion people use for cooking, and kerosene used for lighting (and in some countries also for cooking), create smoky environments that are associated with around 3.5 millio