Choosing a Code Diglossia 使用两种语言或方言使用两种语言或方言Bilingualism and MultilingualismCode-switching Code: Definition nCode (语码): a term which is used to refer to language, speech variety, or dialect. It is more neutral than the others. The neutral term “code” can be used to refer to any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication.nCode: a system of secret words, letters, numbers, etc., used instead of ordinary writing to keep messages secret. Diglossia: definitionnDefinition: a situation in which two distinct codes exist in a society that show clear functional separation; that is, one code is employed in one set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set. nNarrow vs. broad / extended diaglossia Diaglossia: defining characteristics (1)n1. Two varieties are kept quite apart in their functions. The superposed variety (H variety) is highly codified and often grammatically complex. It may be used to deliver sermons and formal lectures, to give political speeches and to broadcast news on television and radio and to write poetry, literature and editorials in newspaper. The low variety (L) may be use to address workers or household servants, in conversation with familiars, in soap opera, in “folk literature”. Each variety is viewed differently by those who are aware of both. qArabic situation: classical Arabic (H), regional colloquial varieties (L)qIn Switzerland: standard German (H), Swiss German (L)qIn Haiti, Standard French (H), Haitian Creole (L)qIn Greece, The Katharevousa (H), Dhimotiki, Demotic (L)Diaglossia: defining characteristics (2)2. The H variety is the prestige variety; the low variety lacks prestige. Little prestige is attached to L variety; people may even deny that they know it although they may be observed to use it far more frequently than the H variety. H variety is regarded as more beautiful, logical, and expressive. So the prestige evaluation of it is deserved. People think it appropriate to use H variety for literary use, for religious purposes. This feeling is always reinforced by the fact that a considerable body of literature will be found to be written in H variety rather than in L variety. Diaglossia: defining characteristics (3)3. All children learn (naturally acquire) the L variety. The H variety is likely to be learned in some kind of formal setting, e.g., in classrooms or as part of a religious or cultural indoctrination. Grammars, dictionaries and standardized texts are only available to H varietyDiaglossia: defining characteristics (4)4. The low variety often shows a tendency to borrow words from the H variety, particularly when speakers try to use the L variety in more formal ways. The result is a certain admixture of H vocabulary into the L variety. On other occasions, there may be distinctly different pairs of words, i.e., doublets, in the H and L varieties to refer to very common objects and concepts. The actual situation is more complicated. For example, sometimes it is the H variety that borrows words from the L variety. Concluding RemarksnDiglossia is a wide spread phenomenon in the world, well attested in both space (e.g. Haitian Creole and standard French) and time (e.g. classical Chinese, modern varieties of Chinese). nPeople living in a diglossic community do not regard Diglossia as a problem. It becomes a problem only when there is a growth of literacy or when there is a desire to decrease regional and or social barriers, or when a need is seen for a unified national language.nTraditionally, in each country the H variety has been associated with elites, and the L variety with everyone else. Diglossia reinforces social distinctions; it is used to assert social position and to keep people in their place, particularly people who are not at the upper end of the social hierarchy. Any move to extend the L variety may be a direct threat to those who want to maintain traditional relationships and the existing power structure.Bilingualism nBilingualism (双语制): the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.nBilingual: a person who uses at least two languages with some degree of proficiency. In everyday use bilingual usually means a person who speaks, reads or understands two languages equally well (a balanced bilingual), but a bilingual person usually has a better knowledge of one language than another.Multilingualism nMultilingualism (多语制): the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.nMultilingual: a person who knows and uses three or more languages. Usually, a multilingual does not know all the languages equally well.n nMultilingualsMultilinguals develop competence in each of the develop competence in each of the codes to the extent that they need it and for the codes