Language maintenance Language maintenance and shiftand shiftn nWhat is an endangered language?What is an endangered language?n nThere are many ways of defining endangered languages, the most simplistic being There are many ways of defining endangered languages, the most simplistic being languages below some critical number of speakers. Smaller languages languages below some critical number of speakers. Smaller languages areare in more in more danger, but the complex social, economic, political, or religious factors are decisive for danger, but the complex social, economic, political, or religious factors are decisive for the transmission of an original language from parents to children.the transmission of an original language from parents to children.n nDorian (Dorian (19801980) lists three symptoms of language death: fewer speakers, fewer domains ) lists three symptoms of language death: fewer speakers, fewer domains of use, and structural simplification.of use, and structural simplification.n nKrauss (Krauss (19921992), in his comparison of languages to endangered biological species, defines ), in his comparison of languages to endangered biological species, defines three categories of languages:three categories of languages:n nmoribund:moribund: languages no longer being learned as mother-tongue by children (4); languages no longer being learned as mother-tongue by children (4); n nendangered:endangered:languages which, though now still being learned by children, will-if the languages which, though now still being learned by children, will-if the present conditions continue-cease to be learned by children during the coming present conditions continue-cease to be learned by children during the coming century (6); and century (6); and n nsafe: safe: languages with official state support and very large numbers of speakers (7). languages with official state support and very large numbers of speakers (7). n nFishman (Fishman (19911991) uses an eight-stage intergenerational disruption scale, where the most ) uses an eight-stage intergenerational disruption scale, where the most threatened languages are those used only (1) by socially isolated old folks, (2) by a threatened languages are those used only (1) by socially isolated old folks, (2) by a socially integrated population beyond child-bearing age, (3) only orally, with no literacy.socially integrated population beyond child-bearing age, (3) only orally, with no literacy.IntroductionIntroductionn nLanguage shift refers to the gradual displacement of one Language shift refers to the gradual displacement of one language by another in the lives of the community members, language by another in the lives of the community members, manifested as loss in number of speakers, level of proficiency, or manifested as loss in number of speakers, level of proficiency, or range of functional use of the language.range of functional use of the language.n nLanguage maintenance denotes the continuing use of a language Language maintenance denotes the continuing use of a language in the face of competition from a regionally and socially more in the face of competition from a regionally and socially more powerful or numerically stronger language.powerful or numerically stronger language.n nImplicitly these terms connote a contact situation and power Implicitly these terms connote a contact situation and power differential between two or more speech communities; it is differential between two or more speech communities; it is usually speakers of the minority language who shift away from or usually speakers of the minority language who shift away from or maintain use of their own language vis-vis the majority maintain use of their own language vis-vis the majority language.language.n nLanguage shift and language maintenance as a field of Language shift and language maintenance as a field of inquiry dates back to the earliest days of inquiry dates back to the earliest days of sociolinguistics, in particular to the work of Joshua sociolinguistics, in particular to the work of Joshua Fishman.Fishman.n nLanguage shift can happen rapidly or slowly. Both LS Language shift can happen rapidly or slowly. Both LS and LM are results of language choice.and LM are results of language choice.n nCaribbean creole languages developed within a century, Caribbean creole languages developed within a century, even less, from African and European languages. Most even less, from African and European languages. Most African languages were lost in 1-2 generations under African languages were lost in 1-2 generations under the catastrophic conditions of slavery, though traces of the catastrophic conditions of slavery, though traces of a few remained until the 20a few remained until the 20thth centurycenturyLanguage shiftLanguage shiftin different communitiesin different communitiesMigrant minoritiesMigrant minoritiesn nTypically, migrants are virtually monol