June 17, 2011nSentence Meaning in Semantics and Pragmatics nHow we express and interpret meaning ?nSemantics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the world; that is, how words literally connect to things. nSemantics also attempts to establish the relationships between verbal descriptions and states of affair in the world as accurate (true) or not, regardless of who produces that description.n G. Yule Pragmaticsn1. Referential theory -meaning and the worldn2. Semantic TriangleMeaningn1. The Referential Theory and Semantic Triangle are of help to understand the meaning of a sentence.nE.g. nA. He switched on the lights.nB. He switched on the shoes.n(literal meaning / figurative meaning)How to judge whether one sentence is meaningful?nHe switches on the lights.nHe switches on the shoes.n : related to the physical world or imagined worldnThe earth moves around the sun.nThe sun moves around the earth.n: It is absurd if the meaning goes against the natural rules.nHe slept standing on one toe.nHe slept in a strange posture.n : it is used figuratively.nThe acceptability of figurative languagen白发三千丈n白发两千丈/白发三五丈？nSam is an absolute pig.nSam is an absolute stegosaurus nn. 剑龙nMy love is a red red rose.nMy love is a red brick.nThe flowers are smiling.nThe dining tables are smiling.nConclusion:nIt is easy to identify the literal meaning of a sentence. nBut it is troublesome to clearify whether a figurative sentence is acceptable or not. nTraditional semantics / pragmaticsSentence meaning in Traditional SemanticsnP.117nA. An Integrated TheorynB. Logical SemanticsnThe meaning of a sentence is the total sum of words in it. (1+1=2)nThe meaning of a sentence depends on the constituent words and the way they are combined. (1+12)The integrated Theory 综合理论The principle of Compositionality 组合原则 nSyntactic/Grammatical markersnSemantic informationn a. semantic markers ( 语义特征n b. distinguishers （辨义特征）nThe projection rulenSelection restrictionsThe man hits the colorful ball.nColorful adj.n1. color ( abounding in contrast or variety of bright colors) (physical object or social activity)n2. evaluative ( having distinctive character, vividness, or picturesqueness) ( aesthetic object ) or social activity)balln1. social activity (large) (assembly) (color) (abounding in contrast or variety of bright colors) ( for the purpose of social dancing)n2. Physical object (having globular shape)n3. physical object (solid missile for projection by engine of war)nA projection rule will be in effect to combine the features of “colorful” and “ball, resulting in the four readings of “ colorfull ball.”n1. bright colors / social dancingn2. bright colors / physical objectn3. bright colors / solid missilen4. evaluative / social dancingnThe combinations of the second reading of colorful and the second and third of ball are blocked by the selection restrictions.nAnother projection rule: n the distinguisher of “the”nBy the same token, the meanings of “hits” and “ the colorful ball” and those of “the” and “man” are established.nEventually, one gets the meaning of the sentence.ProblemsnThere are cases in which the collocation of words cannot be accounted for by grammatical markers, semantic markers or selection restriction.nA. The girl gave her own dress away.n*B. The girl gave his own dress away.nHe said hello to the nurse and she greeted back. nMy cousin is a male nurse.n*My cousin is a female nurse.nScience has not reached such a stage as to allow us to observe the celestial body most distant from the earth. nNo reference / no truth valueSemantic LogicnThe study of the truth condition (真值条件 ）for propositions: how the truth of a composite proposition （复合命题）is determined by the truth valve of its constituent propositions (成分命题）and the connections between them.n复合命题的真值是成分命题真值和所用逻辑 连词的函数。Propositional Logic 命题逻辑Predicate logic 谓词逻辑nOne place connective: negative 否定 not nTwo-place connective : conjunction / / & 合取连词 按and Disjunction / 析取连词 or Implication 条件连词 if-then Equivalence = 等值连词 if and only if-thenLanguage does not always follow the logic. nOxymoron:nBitter-sweet memoriesnProud humility: humble and not servilenOrderly chaos:nGentle firmness: nLogical SemanticsnP. 120-122nPragmatics: the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms. nPragmatics allows humans into the analysis.nHow do you do?nHow do you do?nHi! HI!nI found an old bicycle lying on the ground. The chain was rusted and the tires were flat.nI found an old bicycle. A bicycle has a chain. The chain was rusted. A bicycle also has tires. The tires were flat. nP. 185n1. The intended meaning of speakern2. The meaning in contextn3. An utterance is interpreted more than it means.n4. The distance of speakers. nGrundy (1995)nA. Is it tea or coffee?nB. Would you like tea or coffee?nCan you tell me the tim