Learning Strategy,1. Definition of Learning Strategies 2. Differences Among Several Concepts 3. Classification of Learning Strategies 4. Development of Learning Strategies 5. Factors Influencing Learning Strategies,Outlines,1. Definition of Learning Strategies,Source Definition,Source Definition,Stern 1983,In our view, strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning behaviour.,Weinstein and Mayer 1986,Learning strategies are the behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learners encoding process.,(Ellis, 1994:531),Source Definition,Chamot 1987,Learning strategies are techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information.,Rubin 1987,Learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly.,Oxford 1989,Language learning strategies are behaviours or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable.,It is not clear whether they are to be perceived of as behavioural ( and, therefore, observable) or as mental （unobservable), or as both.,Problems,Oxford (1989) : essentially behavioural; Weinstein and Mayer(1986) : both behavioural and mental; Chamot (1999) : mental processes which cant be observed directly.,A second problem concerns the precise nature of the behaviours that are to count as learning strategies.,Stern (1983) strategies : general and more or less deliberate approaches to learning;techniques: observable forms of language learning behaviour evident in particular areas of language learning such as grammar and vocabulary; Other scholars: use the term strategy to refer to the kind of behaviours Stern calls techniques. Cohen(1998): strategies refer to both general approaches to learning and concrete learning behaviour;,A third problem is whether learning strategies are to beseen as conscious and intentional or as subconscious.,Chamot (1987) : deliberate actions. Bialystock (1990) : some young language learnners sometimes adopt certain strategies to learn, but they themselves do not realize their own strategical behaviors.,A fourth problem concerns whether learning strategies are seen as having a direct or an indirect effect on interlanguagedevelopment.,Robin (1987): somewhat controversially, asserts that the effect is a direct one. Seliger: consider it to be more indirectstrategy use provides learners with data, upon which the deep subconscious processes can work.,2. Differences Among Several Concepts,（程晓堂& 郑敏， 2002:14）,1. Learning Strategies & Learner Strategies,学习者策略，是Learner strategies 的直译。我们没译成更符合汉语习惯的“学习策略”，是为了不与“学习者策略”之一的“学习策略”（learning strategies)相混淆。庄智象、束定芳外语学习中策略研究与外语教学现代外语、1994、第三期,2. Learning Strategies & Learning Techniques,学习方法和学习技巧： 学习者为了解决某个学习问题或为了使学习过程更有效而采取的某些具体的做法或手段。 学习策略： 除完全包括学习方法和学习技巧以外，还包括其他很多方面。如学习者对学习内容和学习过程本身的认识， 学习者对学习目标和学习过程的宏观调控和计划，学习者使用语言时采取的弥补性或辅助性的手段以及为了创造更多的学习机会而采取的策略。 总之，学习策略比学习方法和学习技巧涵盖的内容要广的多。,（程晓堂& 郑敏， 2002:15）,3. Classification of Learning Strategies,Learning Strategies ( OMalley et al. 1985b:582-584),1,- In accordance with information-processing model,3,英语学习策略系统,观念,方法,管理方法,学习方法,（文秋芳， 1996:5）,观念：学习者对“如何学好英语”的认识。 方法：学习者为学好英语所采取的行动。 管理方法：学习者为了安排和组织语言学习活动所采取的一系列做法，通常不涉及英语语言材料本身。 学习方法：与英语语言材料有直接联系的学习活动。,4. Development of Learning Strategies,The strategy concept came from ancient Greece, where strategy meant plans for winning a war. Though the military meaning continues, strategy now also means a systematic plan for achieving any goal.,The idea of strategies for learning started as a result of the cognitive shift in psychology (1950s-1960s and beyond), when stimulus-response behaviorism was overturned.,General Trends of Learning Strategies Development,(Oxford, strategies for learning a second or foreign language, language teaching, 2011:168),Ancient Greece,Behaviorism,Cognitivism,Teacher-centered,Student-centered,Autonomy,1970s,Description and explanation of learning strategies,Classification of learning strategies,Rubin (1975); Naiman, Frohlich Stern (1975) identified characteristics of the prototypical good language learner (GLL).,Selinker (1972) distinguished between language learning strategies and language use strategies. ONeil (1978); ONeil & Spielberger (1979) emphasized the importance of three learning strategy types: cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, affective strategies.,Features of Learning Strategies Development,1980s,Research on learning strategy depended not only on experience, but also on instruction of learning theory.,Research on learning strategy moved from macroscopic to microscopic view.,