二语习得理论的教学启示,Classroom implications have many different aspects. This section only discusses the classroom applications of SLA theories in terms of periods, publications, researchers and theories.,Charactering the development of SLA through different historical periods, we could say that between 1920s and 1970s,the mainstream of language acquisition research is the focus on language pedagogy; from 1980s on, the main trend of language acquisition,both L1A and L2A , is the study of various language theories, but language pedagogy remains a secondary focus of the field.,SLA publications discuss the theories of SLA without dealing with their classroom implications. But some publications do deal with some SLA theories and their classroom implications.,SLA researchers could be classified into two groups. One group is mainly interested in pure SLA theories, from theories to theories; This group includes Noam Chomsky, Lydia White, Julia Rogers, etc. The other group is interested in the relation between SLA theories and classroom implications, from theories to practice, and includes Vivian Cook, Rod Ellis, Patsy Lightbown, Michael Long, Susan Gass, Teresa Pica,etc.,In terms of the SLA theories themselves, we also find that some approaches are directly applicable to the calssroom, while others are less applicable.,5.1 Direct classroom implications 行为主义理论对教学直接作用的启示,From a teaching point of view, the implications of Behaviourist theory were twofold. Firstly, it was strongly believed that practice makes perfect; Secondly, teachers needed to focus their teaching on structures believed to be difficult, and the effective teaching would concentrate on the areas of difference and that the best pedagogical tool for foreign language teachers was a sound knowledge of those areas.,Scovel discussed three factors influencing students errors: trsnsfer,overgeneralization and markedness; here transfer is caused by students L1, because according to the main idea of Behaviourism, he claimed, second language students are influenced by their first tongue.,5.2 Indirect classroom implications 对教学有间接作用的教学启示,About UG researchers findings（关于普遍语法研究者的发现 ）Widdowson concludes, “it was Chomsky who challenged the orthodox pedagogic view of the time that learning was a matter of habit formation to be induced by pattern practice and structureds drill whereby learner were constrained in conformity. He made us conceive of language learning in a totally different way, as an essentially cognitive and creative process in which there was room for learner initiative.”,乔姆斯基认为，每一个母语者都具有一种语言能力。儿童出生时就具有一些带有普遍性的语言知识。在母语习得过程中，人们不断地把先天的这种内在语言体系与母语相比较，从而调整自己的语法结构。因此，语言学习不是一个简单的习惯形成过程，而是一个不断地建立和验证假设的过程。普遍语法还认为每一个句子都有深层机构、表层结构和一些转换规则。,同样，乔姆斯基认为输入是贫乏的，仅靠语言输入是不足习得语言的。主要有两个原因：首先，人们在使用语言过程中时常出现的诸如口误、犹豫和错误开始等现象，从而降低了语言输入的质量。所以，仅仅依靠输入作为语言学习的基础是不够的。第二，输入中没有语法校正。也就是说正常情况下，输入没有反面证据，而正是从反面证据中学习者可以了解到目的语中哪些语言是不能接受的,5.3 Instruction impacting language learning and teaching指导影响语言学习和教学,Selinkers Interlanguage Hypothesis塞林格的中介语假说helps language teachers to realize that interlanguage grammar is becoming more like the target language grammar. If learners make some grammtical mistakes, teachers should not treat them too seriously, since the mistakes will be improved with the more general improvement of learners language.,正处于学习过程中的二语或外语学习者构建的语言通常被称为中介语。中介语通常被理解为介于目的语和学习者母语之间的语言。它是一个动态的语言系统，它不断地从初级水平向地道的母语水平发展。因此，中介语的中介实际上表示的是在开始阶段和最终阶段之间。 中介语可以从两方面进行：1）研究中介语学习过程中学习者的心理、生理和神经机制。2）研究中介语的语言学特征。,Krashens Hypothesis克拉申假说 has had impact on the practice of language teaching; one of the reasons for krashens popularity among language teachers is that he has been able to package his ideas in a manner that is accessible to practitioners.在克拉申输入假设的启发下，很多研究者开始研究最理想的语言输入，比如预先调整的输入和交互调整的输入。前者是指根据学习者的现有水平事先对语言材料进行精细调整，而后者是在师生的交互活动过程中得到调整的。前人实验结果证明，交互调整的输入对于学习者的语言习得更加有效。,From an Information Processing Model信息处理模型, input is necessary for the greater automaticity. Many examples will lead to automatgic types of grammar change. So language teachers need to give students as much input as possible in class and to give more examples for the students to impove their linguistic competence.,Corders Revolution 科德的革命reminds us that errors are usually a reflection of intelligent attempt to master a language. It also reminds language teachers that they need to allow their students to make mistakes, for learners mistakes can be sorted into two different types: sytematic errors and random performance mistakes. They should not deal with learners mistakes too seriously or worry too much about them. Learners mistakes are part of interlanguage, most of which will be overcome with the development of their interlanguage,5.4 Social settings affecting language learning and teaching社会背景影响语言学习和教学,Sociolinguistics 社会语言学can strongly influence language pedagogy; the impact that social and political factors, the focus of sociolinguists studies, have on language learning can hardly be overestimated. Interaction theories互动理论can be called social interaction theories; It shares with the behaviourists an emphasis on the environment in producing language.,