,Thought and Language,Chapter 8 Peking University,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,2,ELIZA,1960s, MIT A Conversationalist: Demonstrating that it recognizes works and know what rules to use to maintain a dialogue. What distinguishes ELIZA from human? Relation between thought and language? In what ways peoples get to learn language?,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,3,Thought,Thinking, means representing things mentally and operating on these representations.,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,4,Outline,Units of Thought: Images, Concepts, and Propositions Reasoning, Problem Solving, and Decision Making Language,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,5,1. Units of Thought: Images, Concepts, and Propositions,Mental Images & Mental Models Concepts and Categories Propositions,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,6,1.1 Mental Images and Mental Models,Mental Image A visual representation of a stimulus. Mental Models Representations of systems that enable people to describe, explain, and predict the way things work.,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,7,1.2 Concepts and Categories,Concepts Mental representation of a class of objects, ideas, or events that share common properties. Categorization The process of grouping objects considered equivalent and excluding those that are not. Visualized & more than visual image(car) Well-defined & Fuzzy Concepts(good),大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,9,Concepts and its Organization,Set Theory Set of Defining(core) Features Feature Integration Model Prototypes 原型 Bird-robin & penguin,概念与归类,狗,样例,定义特征,德国牧羊犬,猎狗,长毛卷耳狗,玩具狮子狗,四足、有尾动物,吠声、气喘、淌口水,通常受驯养、友好,能捉跳蚤,水果样例的典型性,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,12,概念的形成,Hypothesis-testing Theory 整体策略 部分策略 同时性扫描 连续性扫描 保守性聚焦 博弈性聚焦,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,13,1.3 Propositions,The smallest units of meaning that can stand alone as an assertion and be judged true or false.,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,14,2. Reasoning, Problem Solving, and Decision Making,Reasoning Problem Solving Decision Making Factors That Interfere with Rational Thinking Parallel Distributed Processing Using Computers to Simulate Thought A Different Perspective: psychodynamic/behavioral view,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,15,2.1 Reasoning,Reasoning the process by which people generate and evaluate logical arguments Inductive Reasoning-observation reasoning from specific observations to generate propositions that are probably true. Deductive Reasoning-idea Drawing conclusions from assumptions or premises.,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,16,三段论(Syllogism),All A(s) are B C is an A C is a B,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,17,三段论推理,未婚者都不戴结婚戒指。 小李未戴结婚戒指。 所以，小李未婚。 卡片一面是数字，一面是字母。 如果卡片一面是字母A，另一面就是数字3。 要验证第二个命题，必须翻什么卡片？,A,B,3,2,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,18,2.2 Problem Solving,The process of transforming one situation into another that meets a goal.,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,19,2.2.1 The Problem-solving Process,The problem space No problem,Initial State,Operators,Goal State,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,20,2.2.2 Three Components,Initial state Existing of problem Operators mental and behavioral processes aimed at transforming the initial state until it eventually approximates the goal state. Goal state Problem is solved,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,21,2.2.3 Steps in Problem Solving,Holland et al.(1986): four-step process Differences between the two states Identify and select possible operators Apply the operators (Subgoals) Continue using operators until differences are eliminated Well or Ill-defined problem Science/ Social life(信息和标准),大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,22,Problem-Solving Strategies,Algorithms Systematic problem-solving procedures that inevitably produce a solution. Heuristics Cognitive shortcuts or Rules of Thumb Hypothesis testing Experience/ Expectation/ Motivation/ Personality 如何解决：半夜时分隔壁宿舍太闹/过得不开心,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,23,2.3 Decision Making,Decision making The process by which an individual weighs the pros and cons of different alternatives in order to make a choice. Information-processing models Utility / Probability Utility Value Weighted Utility Value Expected Utility,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,25,Risk Strategies (nonstatistical risk estimate),Which is your choice? 85% chance to win $100 Sure gain of $80 Which is your choice? 85% chance to lose $100 Sure loss of $80 Risk-averse/Risk-seeking strategy Optimistic bias(when estimate own risks),大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,26,2.4 Factors That Interfere with Rational Thinking,Representativeness & Availability Heuristic Deciding whether an object or incident belongs in a particular class. Judging the likelihood of something happening on the basis of its availability in memory. Confirmation Bias 2,4,6, Mental Set Functional Fixedness,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,27,2.5 Parallel Distributed Processing,Ruelhart et al., 1986: PDP model of cognition Two propositions of PDP model Parallel Letter-recognition/ word-recognition Distributed,大师教育 www.dashikaoyan.com,28,2.6 Using Computers to Stimulate Thought,Artificial Intelligence GPS, General Problem Solver ELIZA Expert Systems,大师教育