市场研究中的 非市场行为,Before turning to nonmarket situations, let me review some developments in the study of markets that are particularly relevant for the study of nonmarket situations . 在转向非市场情形的研究之前，首先来回顾一下关于市场行为的研究中，与非市场情形有关的观点。,The strong assumptions made about“economic man”and the emphasis on equilibrium analysis, characteristic of the Anglo-American, neoclassical tradition of inquiry, has not been universally adhered to by all economists . 英美学者、古典自由主义关于“经济人”和强调均衡分析的观点并没有并所有的经济学家所接受。 The Austrian school shares common ties with the Scottish school of moral philosophy, but has preferred to work with assumptions of limited information and to focus on equilibrating mechanisms rather than equilibrium states. 奥地利学派和苏格兰学派更倾向于以有限信息和均衡机制而非均衡状态为前提假设，对这一行为进行分析。,The emphasis in Austrian economics is on market structures as providing incentives for innovation and generating information that is relevant to dynamically changing circumstances . 奥地利经济学强调市场结构能够促进创新和产生与动态环境变化有关的信息。 Hayek is the best-known contemporary representative of this tradition .Hayek assumes that information is necessarily incomplete because the generation of new knowledge contributes to the development of new technologies and to new economic opportunities 哈耶克是这一观点的最著名代表，他认为由于新的知识的出现有助于新技术的发展，并且产生新的经济机会，因此信息必定是不完备的。,Much of the focus in Austrian economics, then, is on entrepreneurship, as Kirzner emphasizes entrepreneurs have an incentive to search out new possibilities . Such activities disturb any presumed equilibrium , placing burdens on others to acquire similar capabilities in a market economy . 大部分奥地利经济学家关注企业家精神，正如Kirzner emphasizes强调，企业家具有寻找新机会的动力，这些活动就会打破预先设定的均衡，对其他人造成压力，从而迫使他们也在市场经济中获得相似的能力。,Entrepreneurship and innovation create a competitive dynamic that has to do with advances in knowledge, the extension of technological capabilities, and an opening of new economic opportunities . 企业家和创新会创造一种动态的竞争状态，这种状态关系到知识的进步、技术能力的扩展和新经济机会的创造。 This is a form of competition that can only occur in a world of incomplete information rather than in a world of complete information . 这种形式的竞争只是出现在信息并不完整的市场中。,The competitive dynamics associated with the Austrian school is quite different than, but not contradictory to , the traditional equilibrium analyses of Anglo-American economists .Work in the Austrian school is also consistent with Herbert Simons work on“ bounded rationality”(Simon, 1972, 1978, 1981) . 奥地利学派这种动态竞争的观点与英美经济学家传统的均衡分析并不相同，但是也并不矛盾。此外，这种观点与Herbert Simong的有限理性的观点相一致。,Nelson and Winter s An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change ( 1982) is built on assumptions that have to do with limited information and potentials for learning (see also Nelson, 1977 ) . 纳尔逊和温特经济变化的进化理论(1982)是建立在有限的信息和学习潜力这一假设基础上的(参见尼尔森,1977)。 Giovanni Dosi ( 1984 ) , in a study of Technical Change and Industrial Transformation, is critically concerned with the place of advancing knowledge and technological innovation as a competitive process that affects market structures in different ways than would be expected to occur in competitive markets with complete information . 乔凡尼(1984)在技术变革和产业转型中主要关注知识进步和技术创新的竞争性过程，它将以不同的方式影响市场结构，而不是像预计的那样在信息完整的竞争性市场中出现。,Samuel Popkin ( 1981 ) ,whose work on The Rational Peasant (1979) is well known, is examining problems of information asymmetry that are characteristic of agricultural productivity and how information asymmetries yield different institutional arrangements, such as those involved in sharecroping, piecework, fixed-fee wages, or fixed-fee rental arrangements . 塞缪尔波普金(1981),在理性的农民一书中考察了农业生产中信息不对称的特点，并且研究了信息不对称如何产生了不同的制度安排，例如关于计件工资、固定工资、固定租赁费的安排。,Coase ( 1937 ) in an essay on“ The Nature of the Firm” concerned with why firms, organized more on hierarchical principles, occur in market economies that rely on buying and selling among individuals having equal standing in relation to one another . 科斯在企业的本质一文中关注为什么公司,以多层次的原则进行组织,但在个人之间买卖的市场经济中却拥有平等的竞争关系。 To account for this apparent anomaly, Coase conjectured that organizing transactions across markets entails costs .These costs might reflect the costs of getting information about going prices, costs of negotiation, and so forth .There might then be costs of transactions across markets which could yield savings by having recourse to other patterns of organization . 科斯推测，这种异常现象是因为组织跨市场交易需要成本。这些成本可能反映在获取市场价格信息的成本或谈判的成本上等等。市场交易的成本可能通过获得其他形式的组织结构节省下来。,The basic structure of transactions within a firm would be altered to include reference to a long-term employment contract where an employer in the new relationship could assign and reassign an employee to a variety of different tasks .A superior-subordinate relationship was established within the operation of a firm subject to the longer-term employment contract . 这种基本的交易结构在一个公司将被改变,变成引入长期劳动合同,在新的关系中雇主可以将不同的任务分配给不同的雇员，甚至由雇员进行再分配。这样由于长期雇佣合同的签订公司内部就形成了从属关系。,We have an explanation, then, for why hierarchies would arise within firms that operate in market structures . 这样我们就可以解释,为什么在市场结构中会在公司内部出现层级结构。 Alchian and Demsetz offer team work as