旅游经济学1 The nature of demandu Microeconomics focuses on demand as one half of the marketplace in which goods and services are to be exchanged. u Demand is normally regarded as the driving force of need in the economy, which stimulates entrepreneurial activity in producing the goods and services required to satisfy that need, in exchange for the appropriate reward.u At an individual level, most economic analysis treats those initiating demand as examples of Marshallian man (Kotler 1965); that is, they are concerned mainly with economic cues to their behaviour, and before considering each purchase they make a calculation of the amount of benefit, or utility, they will obtain from the purchase towards satisfying their needs.u 需求是产品和服务得以交易的市场双要素之一。需求指经济上可以实现的需要。需求刺激企业生产产品与服务以满足人们的需要，并获得相应的回报。u 经济学家只要关注消费者行为的经济线索。u 效用是指消费者从产品和服务购买所获得的满足他们需要的程度。u A behavioural approach to demand analysis is important in travel and tourism since the products are complex, the needs, and levels of product knowledge, of intending tourists are many and varied (Goodall 1988). 潜在游客对旅游产品的了解程度又各不相同，旅游需求也多种多样。u Thus it is vital to appreciate the motivations and characteristics of different types of tourist in making up a description of individual, and segment group, utility.u This said, economists are mostly interested in aggregate demand, which can be defined as the quantities of a product that buyers collectively are willing and able to buy at any potential price over some specified period of time. 总需求是指在一定时期内，消费者以某种可能的价格愿意并能够买得起的某种产品的数量。u This is specifically a definition of effective demand. That is, buyers must possess the wherewithal to buy as well as the willingness（购买欲望和支付能力） . u There is no doubt a very large latent demand for luxury yacht cruises or for supersonic air travel, but few buyers have the ability to pay for them.u2 Products and buyer objectives in tourismu The problems to identify exactly what is a travel and tourism product is difficult. It is evident from some of the motivational segments already examined that frequently tourists want products which are normally non- tradeable（旅游者所欲求的旅游产品通常是不可交易的）; for example a culture vulture（文化秃鹫） may wish to consume views of historic buildings or the experiences of street life in a different society. u Nonetheless, most buyers would accept that tradeable products such as the travel services needed to reach the required location and accommodation at that location during the visit are a necessary part of the whole bundle of products making up the tourism experience.u 大多数旅游者依然认为可交易旅游产品是构成整个旅游产品包必不可少的组成部分。其中，旅游交通服务和在目的地的住宿服务是可交易旅游产品的典型例子，而整个旅游产品包构成了旅游体验。u This means that in examining trading in tourism products(可交易的旅游产品） it is possible to view these products in two ways:u as a total package, or set of complementary products （旅游产品集）which the buyer views as a single purchase, considered for example as the dream experience. The tourist would tend to think in terms of a global price for the whole tourist trip, and the effect of a change in price of any one element, say accommodation, would depend on the relative importance of that element in the total package cost. Also, in one sense, each element of the package may be a substitute for another, in that each competes with others for a share of the tourists total package budget.u 游客一次性购买组合旅游产品，欲获得“梦境”一样美妙的经历。他/她考虑的是整个游程的总体价格，任何要素（如住宿）的价格变动效应的大小，都取决于这个要素在组合旅游产品成本中的相对重要性。也就是说，从某种意义上，组合产品的每一个要素都可能是其他要素的替代品，因为所有要素都在为分享游客的组合产品预算而竞争。u as individual products, which are complements certainly, but are considered separately by tourists in making their purchase decisions.Tourism products non-tradable and tradable characteristics bring some difficulties to tourists buying behaviours, please you analyse the inner affecting mechanisms of Tourism products non-tradable and tradable characteristics on tourists buying behaviours.How tourists view tradable tourism products?u 马歇尔需求函数 u 马歇尔需求函数：对于给定的（各种商品的）价格与收入，能使消费者实现效用最大化的各种商品的需求量，它是价格与收入的（向量）函数。相应地，所能实现的最大的效用也是价格与收入的函数，此即间接效用函数。 u 对于给定的价格与效用，能使消费者实现支出最小化的各种商品的需求量，即希克斯需求函数，它是价格与效用的（向量）函数。相应地，所能实现的最小的支出也是价格与支出的函数，此即支出函数。3 Buyer objectivesu The main reason for marketers to segment tourist markets is to enable the formulation and promotion of products to homogeneous groups of buyers;对旅游市场进行细分的主要目的是识别各细分市场的游客的产品偏好，并有针对性地提供相应的旅游产品。u so if segments have been chosen carefully, all buyers in segment i should possess similar motivations to purchase tourism products, all buyers in segment j similar motivations, but different from segment i, and so on. u 如果市场细分到家，那么细分市场i的所有旅游者购买旅游产品的动机应该相似，细分市场j的所有旅游者购买旅游产品的动机也相似，但是与市场i的旅游者购买动机不同。u The objective of any one segment is then to satisfy its motivations as fully as possible.u Thus maximum utility for a particular tourist segment might mean such things as:对某一特定旅游市场细分，效用最大化意味着：u developing maximum competence at snow skiing在滑雪中显示强大的竞争力u retracing as fully as possible the career of an author充分