Chapter Ten Language and the Computer,1. CAI, CAL & CALL,CAI: computer-assisted instruction CAL: computer-assisted learning CALL: computer-assisted language learning Three phases of CALL: Behavioristic CALL Communicative CALL Integrative CALL,1.1 Behavioristic CALL,Conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and 70s. Based on the then dominant behaviorist theories of learning-repetitive language drills (drill and practice). The courseware is based on the model of computer as tutor, a vehicle for delivering instructional materials to the student.,The rationale,Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning. A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored with presenting the same material and since it can provide immediate non-judgmental feedback. A computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities.,Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were developed for the mainframe computers which were used at that time. One of the most sophisticated of these was the PLATO system, which ran on its own special PLATO hardware, including central computers and terminals. The PLATO system included vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations and drills, and translations tests at various intervals.,In the late 1970s and early 1980s, behavioristic CALL was undermined by two important factors. First, behavioristic approaches to language learning had been rejected at both the theoretical and the pedagogical level. Secondly, the introduction of the microcomputer allowed a whole new range of possibilities. The stage was set for a new phase of CALL.,1.2 Communicative CALL,Based on the communicative approach to LT which became prominent in the 1970s and 80s. Proponents of this approach felt that the drill and practice programs of the previous decade did not allow enough authentic communication to be of much value.,Premises for Communicative CALL,focuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves; teaches grammar implicitly rather than explicitly; allows and encourages students to generate original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated language; does not judge and evaluate everything the students nor reward them with congratulatory messages, lights, or bells;,avoids telling students they are wrong and is flexible to a variety of student responses; uses the target language exclusively and creates an environment in which using the target language feels natural, both on and off the screen; and will never try to do anything that a book can do just as well.,Communicative CALL: Model 1,Computer as “knower-of-the-right-answer”, an extension of the computer as tutor model. But the process of finding the right answer involves a fair amount of student choice, control, and interaction. Programs to provide skill practice, but in a non-drill format. Courseware for paced reading, text reconstruction, and language games.,Communicative CALL: Model 2,Computer as stimulus. Purpose is not so much to have students discover the right answer, but rather to stimulate students discussion, writing, or critical thinking. Software used for these purposes include a wide variety of programs which may not have been specifically designed for language learners.,Communicative CALL: Model 3,Computer as tool or, as workhorse. The programs do not necessarily provide any language material at all, but rather empower the learner to use or understand language. Examples include word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, desk-top publishing programs, and concordancers.,By the end of the 1980s, many educators felt that CALL was still failing to live up to its potential. Critics pointed out that the computer was being used in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion and thus “finds itself making a greater contribution to marginal rather than to central elements” of the language teaching process.,1.3 Integrative CALL,Multimedia: CD-ROM (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) hypermedia The Internet: computer-mediated communication (CMC),Hypermedia: advantages,a more authentic learning environment is created; skills are easily integrated; students have great control over their learning; it facilitates a principle focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning strategies.,Hypermedia: disadvantages,Quality of available programs. Todays computer programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive. Multimedia technology as it currently exists thus only partially contributes to integrative CALL.,The Internet,Language learners can communicate directly, inexpensively, and conveniently with other learners or speakers of the target language 24 hours a day, from school, work, or home. This communication can be asynchronous through tools such as electronic mail (e-mail), or it can be synch