Chapter Five第五章 语义学1、Semantics定义can be simply defined as the study of meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning: 2、语义研究的主要流派有哪些？（四种） 1) The naming theory: 命名论. One of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. 2) The conceptualist view: 意念论 It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 3) Contextualism: (语境论) It is based on the presumption(假定) that one can derive推导) meaning from or reduce meaning to observable可观测的) contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized:the situational context and the linguistic context .For example, the meaning of the word seal in the sentence The seal could not be found can only be determined according to the context in which the sentence occurs: 4) Behaviorism行为主义论The contextualist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield . He drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. (Bloomfield, This behaviorist theory is somewhat close to contextualism. It is linked with psychological interest.5、意义与所指有什么关系Sense and reference？ Sense and reference are two terms in the study of meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning that dictionary compilers are interested in. it is abstract and de-contextualized.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. (2)关系： Obviously, linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. On the other hand, there are less frequent occasions when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. “morning star” and “evening star”. 6、 Major sense relations: 主要的意义关系1.synonymy(同义): refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词可以分为哪些类别？Synonymy can be divided into the following groups: Dialectal synonyms (地域性同义词): Dialectal synonyms are words which have more or less the same meaning and are used in different regional dialects such as petroleum in British English and gasoline in American English. Dialectal synonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For example, girl is called lass or lassie in Scottish dialect. Stylistic synonyms文体同义词): Stylistic synonyms are words which have the same meaning but differ in style, or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal , others tend to be casual , and still others are neutral in style. For example:old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning :感性或评价方面不同的同义词They are words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about, such as thrifty and miser. Collocational synonyms搭配上的区别的同义词): Some synonyms differ in their collocation. That is, they go together with different words, for example: accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. .-for. Semantically different synonyms(语意上的差别): They refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example, amaze and astound are very close in meaning to the word surprise, but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, astound imples difficulty in believing.2.polysemy(多义)：refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same one word may have more than one meaning. For example: table 1 a piece of furniture 2 all the people seated at a table 3 the food that is put on a table . 3.homonymy(同音异意，同形异意)：homonymy refers to the phenomenon(现象) that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical (相同的)in sound or spelling , or in both. Homophones(同音异意):refer to two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain/ reign Homographs(同形异意):refer to two word are identical in spelling, e.g. tear n./tear v. 4.hyponymy(上下关系):refers to the sense relating between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Antonys：Antonymy refers