Robot Vision,Chapter 6.,2,Introduction,Computer vision Endowing machines with the means to “see” Create an image of a scene and extract features Very difficult problem for machines Several different scenes can produce identical images. Images can be noisy . Cannot directly invert the image to reconstruct the scene.,3,Human Vision (1),4,Human Vision (2),5,Human Vision (3),6,Steering an Automobile,ALVINN system Pomerleau 1991,1993 Uses Artificial Neural Network Used 30*32 TV image as input (960 input node) 5 Hidden node 30 output node Training regime: modified “on-the-fly” A human driver drives the car, and his actual steering angles are taken as correct labels for the corresponding inputs. Shifted and rotated images were also used for training. ALVINN has driven for 120 consecutive kilometers at speeds up to 100km/h.,7,Steering an Automobile-ALVINN,8,Two stages of Robot Vision (1),Finding out objects in the scene Looking for “edges” in the image Edge:a part of the image across which the image intensity or some other property of the image changes abruptly. Attempting to segment the image into regions. Region:a part of the image in which the image intensity or some other property of the image changes only gradually.,9,Two stages of Robot Vision (2),Image processing stage Transform the original image into one that is more amendable to the scene analysis stage. Involves various filtering operations that help reduce noise, accentuate edges, and find regions. Scene analysis stage Attempt to create an iconic or a feature-based description of the original scene, providing the task-specific information.,10,Two stages of Robot Vision (3),Scene analysis stage produces task-specific information. If only the disposition of the blocks is important, appropriate iconic model can be (C B A FLOOR) If it is important to determine whether there is another block on top of the block labeled C, adequate description will include the value of a feature, CLEAR_C.,11,Averaging (1),Original image can be represented as an m*n array of numbers. The numbers represent the light intensities at corresponding points in the image. Certain irregularities in the image can be smoothed by an averaging operation. Averaging operation involves sliding an averaging widow all over the image array.,12,Averaging (2),Smoothing operation thickens broad lines and eliminates thin lines and small details. The averaging window is centered at each pixel, and the weighted sum of all the pixel numbers within the averaging window is computed. This sum then replaces the original value at that pixel.,13,Averaging (3),Common function used for smoothing is a Gaussian of two dimensions. Convolving an image with a Gaussian is equivalent to finding the solution to a diffusion equation when the initial condition is given by the image intensity field.,14,Averaging (4),15,Edge enhancement (1),Edge: any boundary between parts of the image with markedly different values of some property. Edges are often related to important object properties. Edges in the image occur at places where the second derivative of the image intensity is zero.,16,Edge enhancement (2),17,Combining Edge Enhancement with Averaging (1),Edge enhancement alone would tend to emphasize noise elements along with enhancing edges. To be less sensitive to noise, both operations are needed. (First averaging and then edge enhancing) We can convolve the one-dimensional image with the second derivative of a Gaussian curve to combine both operation.,18,Combining Edge Enhancement with Averaging (2),Laplacian is second-derivate-type operation that enhances edges of any orientation. Laplacian of the two-dimensional Gaussian function looks like an upside-down hat, often called a sombrero function. Entire averaging/edge-finding operation can be achieved by convolving the image with the sombrero function(Called Laplacian filtering),19,6.4.4 Finding Region,Another method for processing image to find “regions” Finding regions Finding outlines,20,A region of the image,A region is homogeneous. The difference in intensity values of pixels in the region is no more than some A polynomial surface of degree k can be fitted to the intensity values of pixels in the region with largest error less than For no two adjacent regions is it the case that the union of all the pixels in these two regions satisfies the homogeneity property. Each region corresponds to a world object or a meaningful part of one.,21,Split-and-merge method,The algorithm begins with just one candidate region, the whole image. Until no more splits need be made. For all candidate regions that do not satisfy the homogeneity property, are each split into four equal-sized candidate regions. Adjacent candidate regions are merged if their pixels satisfying homogeneity property.,22,23,Regions Found by Split Merge for a Grid-World Scene (from Fig.6.12),24,“Cleaned Up” the regions found by Split-and-merge method,Eliminating very small regions (some of whic