微 观 经 济 学 的 基 本 框 架,2019/6/20,2,请解释以下现象,这些事情我们为什么痛心疾首却又无可奈何？ 问题三：“富士康”的悲剧可以避免吗？ 问题四：中国农民为什么总是那么苦？ 请用生产者行为理论分析,2019/6/20,3,基本概念,消费者行为理论 效用最大化 等效用曲线 总效用 边际效用 边际效用递减规律 收入约束线 货币的边际效用 消费者均衡,生产者行为理论 产量最大化 等产量曲线 总产量 边际产量 边际报酬递减规律 成本约束线 边际成本 生产者均衡,2019/6/20,目标、约束和均衡,消费者行为最优条件 目标：效用最大化 约束：收入约束 均衡条件：,生产者行为最优条件 目标：产量最大化 约束：成本约束 均衡条件：,2019/6/20,均衡的实现,最优目标： 支出一定， 产出最大； 产出一定， 支出最低。 MRTS=Px/Py,E,X,Y,均衡点E点 等支出线的斜率 = 无差异曲线的斜率,A,B,C,D,100,200,300,0,CHAPTER 3 OUTLINE,6.1 The Technology of Production 6.2 Production with One Variable Input (Labor) 6.3 Production with Two Variable Inputs 6.4 Returns to Scale,Production,The theory of the firm describes how a firm makes cost-minimizing production decisions and how the firms resulting cost varies with its output.,The production decisions of firms are analogous to the purchasing decisions of consumers, and can likewise be understood in three steps: Production Technology Cost Constraints Input Choices,The Production Decisions of a Firm,THE TECHNOLOGY OF PRODUCTION,The Production Function, factors of production Inputs into the production process (e.g., labor, capital, and materials).,Remember the following:,Inputs and outputs are flows. Equation (6.1) applies to a given technology Production functions describe what is technically feasible when the firm operates efficiently.,THE TECHNOLOGY OF PRODUCTION,The Short Run versus the Long Run, short run Period of time in which quantities of one or more production factors cannot be changed., fixed input Production factor that cannot be varied., long run Amount of time needed to make all production inputs variable.,PRODUCTION WITH ONE VARIABLE INPUT (LABOR),Total Output (q),Amount of Labor (L),Amount of Capital (K),Average Product (q/L),Marginal Product (q/L),PRODUCTION WITH ONE VARIABLE INPUT (LABOR),Average and Marginal Products, average product Output per unit of a particular input., marginal product Additional output produced as an input is increased by one unit.,Average product of labor = Output/labor input = q/L Marginal product of labor = Change in output/change in labor input = q/L,PRODUCTION WITH ONE VARIABLE INPUT (LABOR),The Slopes of the Product Curve,The total product curve in (a) shows the output produced for different amounts of labor input. The average and marginal products in (b) can be obtained (using the data in Table 6.1) from the total product curve. At point A in (a), the marginal product is 20 because the tangent to the total product curve has a slope of 20. At point B in (a) the average product of labor is 20, which is the slope of the line from the origin to B. The average product of labor at point C in (a) is given by the slope of the line 0C.,Production with One Variable Input,Figure 6.1,PRODUCTION WITH ONE VARIABLE INPUT (LABOR),The Slopes of the Product Curve,To the left of point E in (b), the marginal product is above the average product and the average is increasing; to the right of E, the marginal product is below the average product and the average is decreasing. As a result, E represents the point at which the average and marginal products are equal, when the average product reaches its maximum. At D, when total output is maximized, the slope of the tangent to the total product curve is 0, as is the marginal product.,Production with One Variable Input (continued),Figure 6.1,PRODUCTION WITH ONE VARIABLE INPUT (LABOR),The Law of Diminishing Marginal Returns,Labor productivity (output per unit of labor) can increase if there are improvements in technology, even though any given production process exhibits diminishing returns to labor. As we move from point A on curve O1 to B on curve O2 to C on curve O3 over time, labor productivity increases.,The Effect of Technological Improvement,Figure 6.2, law of diminishing marginal returns Principle that as the use of an input increases with other inputs fixed, the resulting additions to output will eventually decrease.,PRODUCTION WITH ONE VARIABLE INPUT (LABOR),The law of diminishing marginal returns was central to the thinking of political economist Thomas Malthus (17661834). Malthus believed that the worlds limited amount of land would not be able to supply enough food as the population grew. He predicted that as both the marginal and average productivity of labor fell and there were more mouths to feed, mass hunger and starvation would result. Fortunately, Malthus was wrong (although he was right about the diminishing marginal returns to labor).,PRODUCTION WITH ONE VARIABLE INPUT (LABOR),Cereal yields have increased. The average world price of food increased temporarily in the early 1970s but has declined since.,Cereal Yields and the World Price of Food,Figure 6.3,Productivity and the Standard of Living, stock of capital Total amount of capital available for use in production., technological change Development of new technologies allowing factors of production to be used more effectively.,Labor Productivity,PRODUCTION WITH ON