摆渡论文网（www.baydue.com）-专业留学生作业辅导中心国外paper写作-Moral Justice of Affirmative Action in EducationIntroduction介绍In America, the ethnic minorities have no opportunities to enjoy any preferential points in college entrance examinations, nevertheless, their equal rights in college enrollment, employment and other related aspects are being protected. Government, colleges and enterprises are supposed to provide all the applicants with equal opportunities for competition as much as possible, avoiding any discrimination caused by differences in skin, gender, religion or other factors. This is the main claim of Affirmative Action. In practice, women and minorities generally possess an unfavorable position in economical and social life. Afrmative action has the same goal as equal opportunity, but differs from equal opportunity in being proactive (Burstein 1994). With the Affirmative Action, employers usually incline to them slightly to increase their chances of being employed. However, the Affirmative Action, which stars from a good point, has suffered unprecedented challenges in the past a few years. Many people think that the Affirmative Action seems to be overcorrect, especially in education. The policy is too biased to protect the interest of the minority groups, which leads to inequality among the majority of the white and men, averting the discrimination (Crosby & Cordova 1996). This reverse discrimination makes competition become more unequal in another direction.在美国，少数民族在高考中没有享受任何优惠的机会，但是他们在入学、就业等方面的平等权利得到了保障。政府、高校和企业应尽可能为所有申请人提供平等的竞争机会，避免因肤色、性别、宗教或其他因素的差异而造成的歧视。这是肯定行动的主要主张。在实践中，妇女和少数民族在经济和社会生活中普遍处于不利地位。主动行动的目标与机会均等相同，但与主动行动的机会均等不同（Burstein 1994）。通过平权行动，雇主通常会稍微倾向于他们，以增加他们被雇用的机会。然而，在过去的几年里，这一积极的行动，从一个良好的角度来看，遭受了前所未有的挑战。许多人认为，平权行动似乎过于正确，特别是在教育方面。这项政策过于偏袒，无法保护少数群体的利益，导致大多数白人和男性不平等，从而避免了歧视（克罗斯比和科尔多瓦，1996年）。这种反向歧视使得竞争在另一个方向上变得更加不平等。Historical Development历史发展Affirmative Action is a policy in the 1960s, with the rise of the American Black Movement and the womens movement. This was firstly initiated by the President Johnson 1965, arguing that colleges and enterprises should incline to minorities and women when conducting enrollment and employment (Nittle 2017). The purpose was to change historical discrimination against the blacks and women for a long period. After the implementation of Affirmative Action, the admission rate of the blacks and women and the success rate of the blacks in government contracts were been greatly improved. The enrollment system in colleges and universities even became the main focus of Affirmative Action. Some universities even explicitly adopted the bonus system for the blacks or give them a percentage quota policy.平权行动是20世纪60年代美国黑人运动和妇女运动兴起的一项政策。这是1965年约翰逊总统首次发起的，他认为高校和企业在进行招生和就业时应倾向于少数民族和妇女（Nittle 2017）。其目的是改变长期以来对黑人和妇女的历史歧视。实施平权行动后，黑人和妇女的入学率和黑人在政府合同中的成功率都有了很大提高。高校招生制度甚至成为平权行动的主要焦点。一些大学甚至明确采用了黑人奖金制度或给予他们一定比例的配额政策。However, it was from the 1970s that people began to have opposing opinions to Affirmative Action. The main doubt was that the Affirmative Action was too overcorrect, leading to reverse discrimination ultimately. The Bakke Case occurring in 1978 launched the first gun against the Affirmative Action (Richard 1979). As a white man, Bakke was refused to be admitted by a media college for two consecutive years. In the meanwhile, the medical college allocated 16% quota for the black students, allowing some black students with poorer conditions than Bakke to college as a result (Richard 1979). Feeling confused and unfair, Bakke appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States directly. The Supreme Courted agreed that that a 16% percentage quota system for the blacks was unconstitutional, but it still supported the Affirmative Action in principle.Then, influenced by this case, there were growing opposing voices to the Affirmative Action. Murmurs developed into arguments, and then turned to protests. The most famous protest against the Affirmative Action was led by Californian governor Peter Wilson in the 1990s. He protested that they should encourage individual talents, instead of allowing collective rights to override individual rights. Thus he launched a campaign to abolish the Affirmative Action. The public California University with nine of its branches abolished the Affirmative Action when enrolling fresh students. Californian then abolished the Affirmative Action through the referendum manner in aspects of education, employment, government bidding and so on. The effectiveness of abolishing the Affirmative Action was apparent and immediate, leading to the result of obvious decreased admission rate of the black students in many universities and colleges. Being affected by California and its series of abolishment, dozens of other states had begun to eradicate the Affirmative Action as well.Years later, the Affirmative Action became a hot national issue in 2013 for another time. This was due to the emergence of a new “Bakke Case”, confronted by th