Unit 1一：.Important distinction in linguistics 1:prescriptive and descriptive (规范性和描述性）If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use , it is said to be descriptive.(be in or actually)If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.(should be) 2:synchronic and diachronic (共识的和历时的）synchronic is the description of a language at some point of time in history.diachronic is the description of language as it changes through time.3.speech and writing Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons.4.langue and parole (语言和言语）Langue refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.5. Competence and performance （语言的能力和表现）competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language ;performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6.traditional grammar and modern linguistics (传统语法和现代语言学）二.Design features of language l arbitrariness(任意性）：it means there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds.l productivity（生产性）:language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.l duality（双重性）：language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure of levels.l displacement(替代性）：language can be used to refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.l cultural transmission（文化传递): it is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning.Unit 2（重点）一：the speech organs lips,teeth,teeth ridge,hard palate,soft palate,uvula,tip of tongue,blade of tongue,back of tongue(most flexible),vocal cords,pharyngeal cavity,nasal cavity 二.phone，phoneme and allophone（音素，音位和音位变体）Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme is a phonological unit;it is a unit that is of distinctive value, and it is a abstract unit.抽象的概念Allophones is different phones represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments .三.phonemic contrast,complementary distribution and minimal pair (音位的对立，互补的分布，最小对位）If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.If they are allophones of the same phoneme,they do not distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.3.Morphology形态学Morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carriers information about meaning or function.Morph:when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may use the term morphFree morpheme:可单独存在有实际意义boy/read Bound morpheme:必须与其他连用 -s.-erDerivational morpheme:改变词意nadj Inflectional morpheme:不改变词性改变时态-edCompounds 合成词3. Syntax 句法Phrase structure rule:NP, VP, APadjective phrase, PPprepositional phraseXP rule: XP(specifier)X(complement) X represent the head N,V,A,P and P represent complementPhrase elements:a. Specifiers-determiner, qualifier, degree wordsb. Complements-provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.c. Modifiers修饰语5.Semantics语义学meaningThe naming theory命名论(proposed by Greek scholar Plato): the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for, but this theory seems applicable to nouns only and abstract notion, such as joy and impulse, can not be named. The conceptualist view概念论: linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind and can name the abstract notion semantic triangle/ triangle of significance语意三角(suggested by Ogden and Richards) Contextualism语境(J.R.Firth): meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context-elements closely linked with language behavior.Behaviorism行为主义(by Bloomfield): situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.Lexical meaning(词汇意义):a. Sense and referencesense意义: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized可以脱离语境./reference所指: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience客观事实存在) b.major sense relations:synonymy近义词dialectal synonyms方言同义词-used in different regional dialects e.g.British English(autumn)&American English(fall)/stylistic synonyms语言的文体同义词，正式程度不同-differing in style e.g.dad, father/synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感态度不同e.g.collaborator, accomplice/collocational synonyms搭配不同e.g.accuse, accuse.of/semantically