DISEASE AND TREATMENT,Diagnosis,Medical diagnosis, the determination of the nature and cause of an illness, begins with a patient history. This includes a history of the present illness with a description of symptoms, a past medical history, and a family and a social history.A physical examination, which includes a review of all systems and observation of any signs of illness, follows the history taking. Practitioners use the following techniques in performing physicals:,Practitioner:person who practises as a professionGeneral practitioner, Inspection: visual examination. Palpation: touching the surface of the body with the hands or fingers. examine (sth) by feeling with the hands, esp as part of a medical examination Percussion(precussion sound): tapping the body and listening to the sounds produced . Auscultation: listening to body sounds with a stethoscope,prefix meaning the chest,检查镜 ultrasonic scopeultrasonic stethoscoe,Auscultation using a stethoscope,Percussion,scop- = look at, inspect,(from the Greek root steth/o, meaning “chest”),Vital signs (VS) are also recorded for comparison with normal ranges. Vital signs are measurements that reflect basic functions necessary to maintain life and include: Temperature (T). Pulse rate, measured in beats per minute (bpm) Respiration rate (R), measured in breaths per minute., Blood pressure (BP), measured in millimeters mercury (mm Hg) and recorded when the heart is contracting (systolic pressure) and relaxing (diastolic pressure),Measuring the pulse rate,Measuring blood pressure with asphygmomanometer,Additional tools used in physical examinations include the ophthalmoscope (, for examination of the eyes; the otoscope , for examination of the ears; hammers, for testing reflexes, and the blood pressure cuff or sphygmo manometer,(A) Ophthalmoscope. (B) Otoscope,Ophthalm o scope,ophthalmic lens,ophthalmology,Oto scope,Imaging TechniquesImaging techniques are the use of various physical forces to produce visual images of the body. The most fundamental imaging method is radiography, which uses x-rays to produce a picture (radiograph) on sensitized film. Radiography is best at showing dense tissues, such as bone, but views of soft tissue can be enhanced by using a contrast medium, such as a barium mixture, to outline the tissue. Other forms of energy used to produce diagnostic images include sound waves, radioactive isotopes, radio waves, and magnetic fields.,magnetic磁性的,Treatment,If diagnosis so indicates, treatment, also termed therapy, is begun. This may consist of counseling, drugs,surgery, radiation, physical therapy, occupational therapy, psychiatric treatment, or a combination of these. During diagnosis and throughout the course of treatment, a patient is evaluated to establish a prognosis, that is, a prediction of the outcome of the disease.,SurgerySurgery is a method for treating disease or injury by manual operations. Surgery may be done through an existing body opening, but usually it involves cutting or puncturing tissue with a sharp instrument in the process of incision. Some form of anesthesia to dull or eliminate pain is usually required. After surgery,incisions must be closed for proper healing. Conventionally, this is done using stitches or sutures, but adhesive strips, staples, and skin glue also are used.,A disease is any alteration from the normal structure or function of any part of the body. Diseases can be grouped into a number of different but often overlapping categories. These include: Infectious diseasescaused by microorganisms and other parasites that live at the expense of another organism. Any disease-causing organism is described as a pathogen.,Disease,Degenerative diseasesresulting from wear and tear, aging, or trauma (injury) that can result in a lesion(wound) and perhaps necrosis (death) of tissue.Common examples include arthritis, cardiovascularproblems, and certain respiratory disorders such as emphysema. Structural malformations such as congenital malformations, prolapse (dropping), or hernia (rupture) may also result in degenerative changes.,Neoplasiaabnormal and uncontrolled growth of tissue.Immune disordersfailures of the immune system, allergies, and autoimmune diseases, in which the body makes antibodies to its own tissues, fall into this category.,Metabolic disordersresulting from lack of enzymes or other factors needed for cellular functions.Many hereditary disorders fall into this category.Malnutrition caused by inadequate intake ofnutrients or inability of the body to absorb and use nutrients also upsets metabolism.,Hormonal disorderscaused by underproduction or overproduction of hormones or by inability of the hormones to function properly. One example is diabetes mellitus.,Mental and emotional disordersdisorders that affect the mind and adaptation of an individual to his or her environment. The cause of a disease is its etiology , although many diseases have multiple interacting causes. An acute disease is sudden and sev