What is syntax? Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Definition of Categories Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Word-level CategorynThe most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories.nMajor lexical categories e.g. Noun(N), Verb(V), Adjective(A), Preposition(P)nMinor lexical categories e.g. Determiner(Det), Degree word(Deg), Qualifier(Qual), Auxiliary(Aux), Conjunction(Con) Phrasal Category the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category Noun phrase(NP) Verb phrase(VP) Adjective phrase(AP) Preposition phrase(PP)The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP and PP can be written as follows: NP (Det) N (PP) VP (Qual) V (NP) AP (Deg) A (PP) PP (Deg) P (NP) XP rule Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head, specifier, and complement. Head（中心语）: the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier（修饰语）：the words on the left side of the heads complement（补足语）：the words on the right side of the headsPhrase structure rule: Specifier+ Head + ComplementThe XP Rule The XP Rule: xp(specifier) x (complement) XP Specifier x Complement HeadX stands for the head N, V, A or P.Head 中心语 NP: the lovely baby of yours VP : carefully examine patients AP: very talent for art PP: mainly about youSpecifiers 标志语 Two roles: semantic roles 语义功能 syntactic roles 句法功能Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head.Syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.Examples of phrases consisting of a head and a specifierSpecifiersHeadsExamplesDeterminerNthe tree, this book, no waterQualifierValways fail, never surrender, often drinkDegree wordAless interesting, quite good, very sensitivePalmost in, quite aboveComplements 补足语 Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information(about entities and locations) whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. For example: the book on the desk never eat a hamburger quite certain about Mary almost in the houseThe information about a words complement options is termed subcategorization.次范畴化 There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, send, put. The bus appeared. Send me an email. Therefore, we can revise our earlier XP rules as follows:XP(Specifier) X (Complement*)A sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as the one below. I believed that she was innocent.The sentences introduced by complementizers are complement clause（补语从句）words which introduce the sentence complement are complementizers（Cs）补语化成分 C+complement clause = complement phrase(shortened as CP)补语短语Modifiers 修饰语Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.ModifierPositionExampleAPprecedes the heada very careful girlPPfollows the headopen with careAdvPprecedes or follows the headread carefully; carefully readThe places of modifersa beautiful girlopen the box with careXP(specifier) (mod) X (complement*) (mod)Please analyze the following phrase: open the box with carecoordination rule并列规则coordination structures are the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, but, so, etc.for example: boys and girls beautiful but expensivecoordination has four important properties:1. No limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction连词前要连多少个成分是没有限制的e.g. They sang and talkedThey sang, danced and talkedThey sang, danced, drunk and talked.2. A category at any level(a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated任何层次（中心语或短语）都可以并列e.g. coffee or teathe old man and the sea2. A category at any level(a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated任何层次（中心语或短语）都可以并列e.g. coffee or teathe old man and the sea4. the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined 并列短语的范畴类别 与所连接成分的范畴类别 相同The coordination rule can be formulated as:X X *Con XX a category at any level(a head or phrase)* one or more categoriesCon conjunction