Linguistics1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that.)phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language)phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication.morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation.syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning.pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication.Some distinctions in linguistics:1) Prescriptive & descriptive Prescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually useDescriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)2) Synchronic & diachronic 共时旳&历时旳Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.3) Langue & parole 语言&言语Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.4) Competence & performance 语言能力&语言运用Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Design features of language:1) arbitrariness: （任意性）means there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.2) Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.3) Duality:（双重性）duality of structure or double articulation of language enables users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4) Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 不受时空限制5) Cultural transmission 文化传播（eg:狼孩）2.Functions of language:1) Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.2) Expressive function: supplies information about the users feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.3) Social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Phone:（音素）is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme:（音位）is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.3.Morphemes词素the minimal units of meaningThe smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or functionFree morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself. Bound morpheme: a morpheme must be attached to another one.Derivational morphemes：(衍生词素) the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. They are conjoined to other morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed. (-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er) 标出 Inflectional morphemes: (波折词素) they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing) 标出4.Category: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phase or a verb.Non-traditional categories: determiner(Det)限定词,degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua)Phrase elements: specifiers, complements(XP Rule), modifiers.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization properties. 没变形 陈说句Surface structure5. Lexical meaning:Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Eg: dog-general meaning of dog, featuresReference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation, known to each other 6.Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (John Firth)Speech act theory: (John Austin)Locutionary act:（言内行为）is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses.Illocutionary act: (言外之意) is the act of expressing the speakers intention; it is the act of performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act:（言后行为）is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle-CP (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity:Say no less than the conversation requires.Say no more than the conversation requires.The maxim of quality:Dont say what you believe to be false.Dont say things for which you lack evidence.The maxim of manner:Dont be obscure. Dont be ambiguous.Be brief. Be orderly.The maxim of relevance: Be relevant.7. Language changeAddition of new words:1) Coinage:创新词Spyware di