.语言学的基本概念1. What is linguistics? (1) The definition: Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language, or, alternatively, the scientific study of language. (2) The main branches of Linguistics: Phonetics 语音学 Phonology 音位学 Morphology 形态学 Syntax 句法学 Semantics 语义学 Pragmatics 语用学2. General Linguistics & Applied Linguistics (1) The main difference General Linguistics: 理论研究，研究对象为人类所有语言Applied Linguistics: 应用研究，语言在各个领域的实际应用(2) The main branches of each General Linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, Pragmatics Applied Linguistics: Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics, Physiological Phonelics, etc. (Page 64, Para1)Note: 上述应用语言学分分支，指的是广义的应用语言学的分支，狭义的应用语言学只指语言教学3. Important distinctions in Linguistics (1) Descriptive Linguistics V.S. Prescriptive Linguistics 精品.Dont say X. a prescriptive command People dont say X. a descriptive statement The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. Prescriptive Linguistics: 规定正确的用法，按照此规定使用语言 Descriptive Linguistics: 语言的实际用法(2) Synchronic Linguistics V.S. Diachronic Linguistics -Saussure Diachronic Linguistics: the study of language through the course of its history. Synchronic Linguistics: the study of language, which takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. (3) Speech V.S. Writing Speech: communication by word of mouth Writing: symbol of language(4) Langue V.S. Parole Langue: the common possession of a speech community 言语活动中社会成员共同使用的部分，是社会共有的交际工具。Parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics 语言上的实际表现或语料，在具体场合下的具体话语。(5) Competence V.S. Performance -ChomskyCompetence: a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language 精品.Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations. What we do when we speak or listen. Phonetics语音学1. Definition The study of the pronunciation (including how sounds are made, transmitted, and received发出，传递，感知), description and classification of speech sounds. 比如：p是用什么发音器官发出来的？是爆破音还是唇齿音？是元音还是辅音？是轻音还是浊音？ Articulatory Phonetics发音语音学: the production of speech sounds-organs Acoustic Phonetics声学语音学: the property of sound waves-transmission Auditory Phonetics听觉语音学: the way in which the listener analyses or possesses a sound wave-perception 2. Classification of English Speech SoundsDifference: whether the air from the lungs meets with obstruction in the throat, the nose, or the mouth when you pronounce. Consonants (24)Vowels (20)(1) Classification of Consonants Voiced or voicelss 清音或浊音 （8对）Voiced: p, t, k, f, , s, , tVoiceless: b, d, g, v, , z, , d Place of pronunciation （分为8类，共24个音标）Bilabial: p, b, m, w (4个)Labiodental: f,v （2个）Dental: , (2个)Alveolar: t, d, s, z, n, r, l (7个)精品.Palatal-alveolar: , t, , d (4个)Palatal: j (1个)Velar: k, g, (3个)Glottal: h （1个） Manner of Articulation (分为6类，共24个)Stop: p, b, t, d, k, g (6个)Fricative: f, v, , , , , s, z, h (9个)Affricate: t, d (2个)Nasal: m, n, (3个)Lateral: l (1个)Appronimant: w, r, j (3个)注：1. 69页的表格必须背会，其中一个格子里有两个音标的，左为清，右为浊2. 描述辅音：一说清浊，二说发音部位，三说发音方式 （2）Classification of vowels Monophthongs (12个): i:, i, , :, u:, u, e, , :, , , a: Diphthongs （8个: ei, ai, i; u, au, i, e, u注：1. 69页元音表格必须背会，但忽略tense和lax 2. high，mid，low表示舌头抬高的高度；front, central, back表示发此音时舌头最高部分的位置；tense长元音，lax短元音（只有带两个点的才是长元音）。3. 此表可以简化为：FrontCentralBackHigh i: i u:, uMid e, :Low a:精品.Eg. i: high, front, tense vowel u high, back, lax vowel mid, central, lax vowelPhonology音系学1. DefinitionPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. 研究支配语言结构，分部和排列的规则，以及音节的形式。比如：p在poor，soup，spirit里面的发音有不同吗？为什么有不同？即便有不同，为什么又永远不会和g的发音混淆？2. Phonemes, phones, and Allophones Phoneme：音位，在音系学研究的最基本单位，国际音标中所列举出来的都有哪些发音。Phone：音素，语音学研究的嘴基本单位，指人的发音器官所能发出的最小的音，指实际的发音。Allophones：音位变体。指的是同一个音位，在不同的单词中会发出不同的音。也就是一个phoneme会有两个甚至更多的phone。Eg，p在peak和speak中的发音是不同的。在peak中p的发音是送气的，用ph；而在speak中p的发音是不送气的，用p表示。所以 p这个phoneme就有了ph和p的音位变体。3. Minimal Pair精品.Eg： pig，big，dig，4. Phonological process 音位过程Assimilation指一个语音受邻音的影响而带有了邻音的某些或全部发音特点 判断：Nasalization, dentalization, velarization全部属于assimilation的不同情况。所举的例子全部为逆同化。5. Phonological Rules音系规则（1）Sequential rule： eg. kite是一个单词，但是ktie就不能构成一个单词（2）同化规则：解读：/表示在什么情况下，_表示某一音位，如果一个非鼻音之后有一个鼻音，那个这个非鼻音也会变成具有鼻音的特点。（3）增音规则：eg，为什么不定冠词a在名词以元音发音开头的情况下全部变成an？a pen，a box，an apple，an hour6. Suprasegmental 超音段指语音问题中超出单音音段以上的方面，主要包