Chapter1IntroductionWhatislinguistics?什么是语言学A ThedefinitionoflinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage对语言进行的科学研究)Processoflinguisticstudy: Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed; Hypothesesareformulated; Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations; AlinguistictheoryisconstructedB ThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics普通语言学：thestudyoflanguageasawhole从整体研究1.Phonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified)2Phonology:isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning)3Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords)4Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences)5. Semantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstraction6. Pragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseSociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemindAppliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearningAnthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguisticsC Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics Prescriptivevs.Descriptive规定性与描写性 Synchronicvs.Diachronic共时性与历时性(现代英语多研究共时性)Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.diachronic（historical）linguisticssynchroniclinguistics SpeechandwritingSpokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten LangueandparoleProposedbySwisslinguistsFdeSausse（sociological）Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity扌旨一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统）Parole:referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse（指语言在实际运用中的实现） Competenceandperformance语言能力与语言运用ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistNChomsky（psychological）Competence:theidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识）Performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticscommunication.（这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现）Whatislanguage?什么是语言A ThedefinitionoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.（语言是-个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。）a）System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorules（根据规则组合在一起）b）Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor（语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）c）Vocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages（所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）d）Human:languageishuman-specific（语言是人类所独有的）B Designfeatures（uniqueproperties）:thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication（识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征） Arbitrariness（任意性）Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform（eithersoundorword）anditsmeaning.Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）a）echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:onomatopoeicwords（拟声词）b）somecompoundwords（某些复合词） Productivity（能产性，创造性）Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.（Creativityoropen-endedness）Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword（doublearticulation）（语言是-个系统,包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性） Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker（refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations） Culturaltransition（文化传递性）Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis（everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage）,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt.Theabove5propertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanlanguage.Chapter2Phonology音位学A Thedefinitionofphonetics（语音学）Phonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworldslanguages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.（发音语音学）Acousticphonetics:dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair.（听觉语音学）Auditory（orperceptual）phonetics:dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds.（声学语音学）B Organsofspeech（发音器官）Voiceless:清冃音whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.Voiced（Voicing）:浊音whenthevocalcords声带aredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.AlltheEnglishvowels兀音aretypicallyvoiced（voicing）.Theimportantcavities:Thepharyngealcavity咽腔Theoralcavity口腔Thenasalcavity鼻腔其他部位：Lips唇1,teeth齿2,teethridge（alveolus）齿龈3,hardpalate硬腭4,softpalate（velum）软腭5,uvula小舌6,tipoftongue舌尖7,bladeoftongue舌面8,backoftongue舌后9,vocalcords声带10C Orthographicrepresentationofspeechs