语言学考试要点（考试重点整理）Chapter 1 In troducti on1. What is linguistics? Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage.2. The scope of lin guistics:(1 ). pho netics 语音学;phono logy 音位 学； morphology 形态学； syntax 句法学； pragmatics 语用学(2) .socioli nguistics 社会语言学； 心 psycholi nguistics 理语言学； 应用语 applied lin guistics 言学3. Someimportant distinction in linguistics(1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive描述性与规定性 I f a linguistics study aims to describe and an alyze the Ian guage people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; I f the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for ” correct and standard ”behavior in using Ian guage, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to beprescriptive.(2)ynchronic vs. diachr onicS 共时性与历时性 A synchronic descripti on takes a fixed in sta nt (usually, but not n ecessarily, the prese nt) as its point of observati on. Most grammars are of this kind. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a Ianguage through the course of its history.(2) Lan gue & parole 语言与会话 Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech comm un ity. Parole refers to the realizati on ofIan guage in actual use.(4) Competenee and performanee 语言能力 与 语言运用 A Ianguage users unconscious kno wledge about the system of rules is called his lin guisticcompete nee. Performa nee refers to the actual use of Ian guage in eon erete situati ons.语言与文字are the twoSpeech and writing are the twomajor media of comm uni cati on.(6) traditi onalgrammar and moder nlin guistic 传统语法与现代语言学4. Definition of Ianguage:Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n comm uni cati on.Language is a system, i.e., elements ofIan guage are comb ined accordi ng to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrin sicconn ecti onbetwee n a lin guistics symbol and what the symbol sta nds.Lan guage is vocal because the primary medium for all la nguages is sound.The term “ human in the defi niti on ismea nt to specify thatIan guage ishuma n-specific.5. Design features of Ianguage6. (1) Arbitrari ness 任意性 refers to the forms of lin guistic sig ns bear no n atural relati on ship to their meaning.(so unds and meanin gs)(2) Productivity(creativity) 能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible the con structi on and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality 双重性 The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of eleme nts of the sec on dary level and eachof the two levels has its own principles of orga ni zati on.(4) displaceme nt 移位性 Huma n Lan guages en able their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of comm uni cati on.cultural tran smissi 文化传承性(5) on7. Fun cti ons of Ian guage(1) refere ntial (to con vey message and in formati on),(2) poetic (to indulge in Ianguage for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feeli ngs and emoti on s),(4) con ative (to persuade and in flue nce others through comma nds and requests),(5) phatic (to establish comm union with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanin gs). Informative( 信 息 功 能 ): to give in formati on about facts. (ideati on al) Interpersonal( 人 际功能 ): to establish and main tai n social status in a society.(age, sex, la nguage, backgro und, acce nt, status) Performative（ 施为功能 ） :Ianguage is used to do thi ngs, to perform certa in actions. （name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare） .Emotive/Expressive （ 情感功能 ） : to express feeli ngs and attitudes of the speaker. Phatic communion（ 寒暄交流 ） :to use small and meanin gless expressi ons to establish a comfortable relati on ship or maintain social con tactbetwee n peoplewithout any factual content. （health, weather） Recreational function（ 娱乐 ）:the use of Ian guage for sheer joy. （lyrics, poetry） Metalingual function（ 元语言功能 ）: to talk about Ian guage itself.1. Phonetics （语音学） is the study of the phonic mediumof Ianguage; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s Ianguages. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, tran smitted, and perceived.2. Orthographic representation of speech sounds :broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrowtran scripti on （严式标音）A broad tran scripti on （宽式标音） is the tran scripti on with letter-symbols on ly.A narrow tran scripti on （严式标音） is a tran scripti on with letter symbols together with diacritics.3. Phono logy （音位学） is the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems of Ian guages.4. The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征） Both are concerned with the sameaspect of Ianguagethe speech sounds. But they differ intheir approach and focus. Phon etics is of gen eral n ature; it isin terested in all the speech sounds usedin all huma n Ian guages; it