复习要点Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? 语言学旳定义: 2 featuresLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1) It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2) It is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, using some general theory of language structure. 1.2 The scope/branches of linguistics语言学旳研究范畴: 7 major and 3 interdisciplinary 1) The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics（一般语言学）. 2) The study of sounds used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics（语音学）. 3) The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is called phonology（音系学）. 4) The study of how morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology（形态学）. 5) The study of how words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）. 6) The study of meaning conveyed by language is called semantics（语义学）. 7) The study of meaning in context of language use is called pragmatics（语用学）. 8) The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics（社会语言学）. 9) The study of language with reference to psychology is called psycholinguistics（心理语言学）. 10) The study of applications of linguistic study is generally known as applied linguistics（应用语言学）. But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.11) Other related branches include anthropological linguistics（人类语言学）, neurological linguistics（神经语言学）, mathematical linguistics（数字语言学）, and computational linguistics（计算机语言学）. 1.3 Five important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中旳几对基本概念: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic vs. diachronic, speech vs. writing, langue vs. parole, competence vs. performance1) Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定与描写l If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.l Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.2) Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.3) Speech vs. writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as natural or primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: . Linguistic evolution . Everyday communication. Personal acquisition4) Langue vs. parole 语言和言语l made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th centuryl Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. l Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover langue, i.e. the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. 5) Competence vs. performance 语言能力和语言运用l proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.l He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. l He believes the task of the linguists is to discover the ideal speakers competence. l langue vs. competence, parole vs. performance6) Traditional grammar vs. modern linguistics 老式语言学和现代语言学l Definition: modern linguistics marked by Saussures book in the early 20th century; the general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is called traditional grammarl Difference: . descriptive vs. prescriptive . spoken vs. written. Latin-based framework1.4 What is language? 语言旳定义: 3 featuresLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.5 Design features of language 语言旳辨认特性: 5 features: arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement, cultural transmissionDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.1) Arbitrariness 语言旳随意性l Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. l It is not entirely arbitrary: onomatopoeic words, compound words. 2) Productivity 语言旳发明性l Language is productive in that it makes possi