Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学； morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学； pragmatics 语用学(2) . sociolinguistics 社会语言学； psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics 应用语言学3. Some important distinction in linguistics(1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性 If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性 A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2) Langue & parole 语言与会话 Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4) Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用 A language users unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5) speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6) traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4. Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5. Design features of language6. (1) Arbitrariness 任意性 refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性 Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality 双重性 The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement 移位性 Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5) cultural transmission 文化传承性7. Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings). lnformative(信息功能):to give information about facts. (ideational) Interpersonal人际功能)：to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status) Performative(施为功能)：language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare) . Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Phatic comm union(寒暄交流)：to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather) Recreational function(娱乐):the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry) Metalingual functio n(元语言功能):to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1. Phonetics (语音学)is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2. Orthographic representation of speech sounds ：broad transcription (宽式标音)and narrow transcription (严式标音)A broad transcription (宽式标音)is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription (严式标音)is a transcription with letter symbols together with diacritics.3. Phonology (音位学)is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4. The differences between phonetics and phonology:(语音的正字表征) Both are concerned with the same aspect of languagethe speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aimsto answerquestionslike: how they are produced, how theydiffer from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology aims to discover how speech