Chapter 1 Introduction.What is language?1. Different definitions of language(1) Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)(2) Language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)(3) Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.2. Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence of language, but all of them have left out something. We must see the multi-faceted nature of language.3. As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Features of human language1. Creativity(1) Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding brand new messages.(2) The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.2. Duality(1) Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings.(2) Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.(3) Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds.3. Arbitrariness(1) The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.(2) There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.4. Displacement(1) There is no limit in time or space for language.(2) Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.5. Cultural transmission(1) Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.(2) Language is a way of transmitting culture.6. InterchangeabilityAll members of a speech community can send and receive messages.7. Reflexivity(1) Human languages can be used to describe themselves.(2) The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.Functions of language three meta-functions1. The ideational function To identify things, to think, or to record information.2. The interpersonal function To get along in a community.3. The textual functionTo form a text.Types of language1. Genetic classification2. Typological classification(1) Analytic language no inflections or formal changes, grammatical relationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese and Vietnamese(2) Synthetic language grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words, typically by changing the inflectional endings, such as English and German(3) Agglutinating language words are built out of a long sequence of units, with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such as Japanese and Turkish.The myth of language language origin1. The Biblical accountLanguage was Gods gift to human beings.2. The bow-wow theory Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.3. The pooh-pooh theory Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.4. The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.5. The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.What is linguistics?1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language.(1) Observing & questioning(2) Formulating hypotheses(3) Verifying the hypotheses(4) Proposing a theory2. Branches of linguistics(1) Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions n Phonetics n Phonology n Morphology n Syntax n Semantics(2) External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions n Pragmatics n Psycholinguistics n Sociolinguistics n Applied linguistics n Computational linguistics n Neurolinguistics 3. Features of linguistics(1) Descriptive(2) Dealing with spoken language(3) SynchronicChapter 2 Phonetics.What is phonetics? 1. Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.2. Sub-branches of phonetics(1) Articulatory phonetics the production of speech sounds(2) Acoustic phonetics the physical properties of speech sounds(3) Auditory phonetics the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds.The speech organs1. Where does the air stream come from?From the lung2. What is the function of vocal cords?Controlling the air stream3. What are the cavities?(1) Oral cavity(2) Pharyngeal cavity(3) Nasal cavity.Transcription of speech sounds1. Units of representationSegments (the individual sounds)2. Phonetic symbols(1) The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).(2) The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the sy