一、 名词解释1、 Psychological distance: it may be that the truly pragmatic basis of special deixis is actually psychological. Physically close objects will tend to be treated by the speaker as psychologically close. Also ,sth that is physically distant will generally be treated as psychologically distant.2、 Reference: reference is an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or reader, to identify something. 3、 inference: Inferenceis the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true.4、 Presupposition: a presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance, speakers, not sentences, have presupposition.5、 Entailment: an entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance, sentences, not speakers, have entailments.6、 Face,: face means the public self-image of a person. It refers that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize. 7、 Politeness: in an interaction, can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another persons face. 二、 简答题1、whats pragmatics ? Types of it. Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker( or writer) and interpreted by a listeneror reader pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.pragmatics is the study of how more gets it communicated than is said. pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance. 2、 whats deixis ? Deixis is a technical term( from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterance. It means pointing via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this pointing is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. They are among the first forms to be broken by very young children and can be used to indicate people via person deixis( me, you), or location via spatial deixis( here, there), or time via temporal deixis( now, then). 3、 Types of presupposition. The existential presupposition is not only assumed to be present in possessive construction ( for example, your car you have a car) The presupposed information following a verb like know can be treated as a fact, and is described as a factive presupposition, such as realize and regret. General speaking, in lexical presupposition, the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another ( non-asserted ) meaning is understood, such as stop, star, and again. In addition to presupposition which are associated with the use of certain words and phrases, there are also structural presupposition. ( for example, when did he leave? he left. / where did you buy the bike ? you bought the bike. ) A non-factive presupposition is one that is assumed not to be true. ( example, I dreamed that I was rich. I was not rich/ we imagined we were in Hawaii.we were not in Hawaii. / he pretends to be ill.he is not ill. )At end of the discussion of deixis, a structure that is interpreted with a non-factive presupposition. Indeed, this type of structure creates a counter-factual presupposition, meaning that what is presupposed is not only true, but is the opposite of what is true, or contrary to facts. ( example, if you were my friend, you would have helped me.you are not my friend.)4. Cooperation and implicature. The cooperative principle: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at stage it which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. Quantity,i. Make your contribution as informative as is required ( for the current purposes of the exchange). b) Do you make your contribution more informative than is required. Quality. Try to make your contribution one that is true. a) Do not say what what you believe to be false. b) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Relation. Be relevant. Manner. Be perspicuous. a) Avoid obscurity of expression.b) Avoid ambiguity.c) Be brief( avoid unnecessary prolixity). d) Be orderly. Properties of conversational implicatures1. Conversational implicatures are deniable. They can be explicitly denied(or alternatively, reinforced) in different ways.2. Implicatures can be calculated by the listeners via inference. In terms of their defining properties, then, conversational implicatures can be calculated, suspended, cancelled, and reinforced. Speech actThe action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts.1. Locutionary act, which is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression,2. The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance.3. Depending