*学院毕业设计附录B 外文原文The scope of civil engineering, construction and managementCivil engineering is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket launching facilities. Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airport, railroads, pipelines , skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities.The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, Englishman John Seaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term civil engineer has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broader.Engineering is a profession, which means that an engineer must have a specialized university education. Many government jurisdictions also have licensing procedures which require engineering graduates to pass an examination, similar to the bar examination for a lawyer, before they can actively start on their careers. In the university, mathematics, physics, and chemistry are heavily emphasized throughout the engineering curriculum, but particularly in the first two or three years. Mathematics is very important in all branches of engineering, so it is greatly stressed. Today, mathematics includes courses in statistics, which deals with gathering, classifying, and using numerical data, or pieces of information. An important aspect of statistical mathematics is probability, which deals with what may happen when there are different factors, or variables, that can change the results of a problem. Before the construction of a bridge is undertaken, for example, a statistical study is made of the amount of traffic the bridge will be expected to handle. In the design of the bridge, variables such as water pressure on the foundation, impact, the effects of different wind forces, and many other factors must be considered. Because a great deal of calculation is involved in solving these problems, computer programming is now included in almost all engineering curricula. Computers, of course, can solve many problems involving calculations with greater speed and accuracy than a human being can. But computers are useless unless they are given clear and accurate instructions and informationin other words, a good program. Civil engineering project are almost always unique; that is, each has its own problems and design features. Therefore, careful study is given to each project even before design work begins. The study includes a survey both of topography and subsoil features of the proposed site. It also includes a consideration of possible alternatives, such as a concrete gravity dam or an earth-fill embankment dam. The economic factors involved in each of the possible alternatives must also be weighed. Today, a study usually includes a consideration of the environmental impact of the project. Many engineers, usually working as a team that includes surveyors, specialists in soil mechanics, and experts in design and construction, are involved in making these feasibility studies.Many Civil engineers, among them the top people in the field, work in design. As we have seen, Civil engineers work on many kinds of structures, so it is normal practice for an engineer to specialize in just one kind. In designing buildings, engineers often work as consultants to architectural or construction firms. Dams, bridges, water supply systems, and other large projects ordinarily employ several engineers whose work is coordinated by a system engineer who is in charge of the entire project. In many cases, engineers from other disciplines are involved. In a dam project, for example, electrical and mechanical engineers work on the design of the powerhouse and its equipment. In other cases, civil engineers are assigned to work on a project in another field; in the space program, for instance, civil engineers were necessary in the design and construction of such structures as launching pads and rocket storage facilities.Construction is a complicated process on almost all engineering projects. It involves scheduling the work and utilizing the equipment and the materials so that costs are kept as low as possible. Safety factor must also be taken into account, since construction can be very dangerous. Many civil engineers therefore specialize in the construction phase.Becaus