Chapter 5 Meaning1、Semantics（语义学）Semantics is the study of meaning of the linguistic units, words and sentences in particular 、（语义学就是对语言单位，尤其就是词与句子得意义得研究。）2、Meanings of “meaning”1）、 Meaning:Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world、（意义就是指语言所表达得关于现实世界或者想象中得世界得想法。）2）、 Connotation: （内涵）Connotation means the properties of the entity a word denotes、（内涵指得就是一个词所指称得实体得特征。）3）、 Denotation: （外延）Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity to which it refers、 Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning 、 （外延涉及语言单位与非语言实 体之间得关系。在这个意义上，它跟指称意义就是一样得。）3、The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world、 There are many types of meaning according to different approaches、Concept is the impression of objects in peoples mind、Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication、Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption ofthe real world、4、The referential theory1）、 DefinitionThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory、（把词语意义跟它所指称或代表得事物联系起来得理论，叫 做指称理论）2）、 The semantic triangle （语义三角）Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle” as manifested in the following diagram。The connection （represented with a dotted line） between symbol and referent is made possible only through “concept、”Concept / notion （概念）Thought / referenceobjectSymbolWordstands for realityreferentSignifierCode （词语）signified （事物）5、Sense relations （涵义关系）5、 1SynonymySynonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation、5、2 Antonymy （反义关系）Antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation 、 There are three subtypes: gradable, complementary and converse antonymy、（反义关系就是对立关系得专业术语，它包括三个此 类： 等级反义关系，互补反义关系与反向反义关系。） 、Gradable antonymy （等级反义关系）Gradable antonymy is the commonest type of antonymy、 They are mainly adjectives, e、 g、 good/ bad, long / short, big / small, etc、 、Complementary antonymy （互补反义关系）The members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each other 、 That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic filed completely、 Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, but the denial of one also means the assertion of the other, e、 g、 alive / dead, hit / miss, male / female, boy / girl, etc、（跟第一种反义关系相反，这种反义词得成员彼此互补。也就就是说它们吧一个语义领域完 全切分成两半。不但对一方得肯定意味着对另一方得否定，而且对一方得否定也意味着对另 一方得肯定。） 、Converse antonymy （反向反义关系）Converse antonyms are also called relational opposites、 This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition、 They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e、 g、 buy / sell, parent / child, above / below, etc、（这就是反义关系得一种特殊类型，因为其中得成员并不构成肯定或者否定得对立，而只表 现两实体间得一种反向关系。这种反义关系典型地表现在两两相对得角色、亲属关系、时间 与空间关系等方面；在这种意义上，它叫关系对立。）5、3Hyponymy （上下义关系）Hyponymy is meaning inclusiveness or a matter of class membership、 That is to say, when x is a kind of y, the lower term x is the hyponym, and the upper term y is the superordinate、 （上下义 关系就是指意义内包关系或者说一种类与成员间得关系。位于这种意义关系上位得词语叫上 坐标词； 位于下位得就是成员，叫下义词。）Two or more hyponyms of the same one superordinate are called co-hyponyms, e、g、 under flower, there are peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc 、, flower is the superordinate of peony, jasmine, etc、, peony is the hyponym of flower, and peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc 、 are co-hyponyms、（同下义词）5、 4 Homonymy （同音/同形异义关系）Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i、 e、 different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both 、（同音/同形异义关系就是指不同意义得词具有相同得形式这一种现象，即不同得词发音或者拼写相同，或者发音与拼 写都相同。）When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones、（同音异义词）When two words are identical in spelling, they are called homographs 、 （同形异义词） When two words are identical both in sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms、 （完全同音同形词） 5、 5、 Entailment （蕴含）If that one sentence is true gives us certain knowledge of the truth of the second sentence, then the first sentence entails the second one、（如果知道一个句子得真假能够判断另一个句子得真假，那么第一个句子就蕴含了第二个句子。） In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between the two sentences if a entails b: When a is true, b is necessarily true; （a 真 b 真）When b is false, a is false; （b 假 a 假）When a is false, b may be true or false; （a 假 b 或真或假）When b is true, a may be true、 （b 真 a 或真或假）5、6、 Presupposition （预设）The speaker or writer always assumes that the hearer or reader already knows something of what he is going to say or write、 This “something” often becomes the presupposition of a sentence、 In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between two sentences:When a is true, b is