工程管理专业英语工程管理专业英语什么是专业英语专业英语专业英语 (English for Special Science and Technology)隶属于科技英语隶属于科技英语 是科技英语的一部分，以表达科技是科技英语的一部分，以表达科技概念、理论与事实为主要目的。遵守科技英语的语法体概念、理论与事实为主要目的。遵守科技英语的语法体系和翻译方法，特别注意客观事实和真理，表达准确系和翻译方法，特别注意客观事实和真理，表达准确(accuracy)、精炼、精炼( (conciseness)和正式和正式(formal)。是结合各自专业的科技英语是结合各自专业的科技英语 有很强的专业性、涉及的有很强的专业性、涉及的面更加狭窄，与专业内容配合更为密切。面更加狭窄，与专业内容配合更为密切。专业英语与科技英语既有区别又有联系，专业英语的学专业英语与科技英语既有区别又有联系，专业英语的学习需要有一个良好的科技英语基础，同时也要注意其自习需要有一个良好的科技英语基础，同时也要注意其自身的词汇特点，语法特点、修饰特点和翻译特点等等。身的词汇特点，语法特点、修饰特点和翻译特点等等。专业英语的翻译Let the readers have the same feelings as the natives.翻译是将一种语言转换成另一种语言，使得两种语言的受众者有翻译是将一种语言转换成另一种语言，使得两种语言的受众者有同样的感受。同样的感受。Criterions:信信fidelity即忠实于原文的内容，包括思想、感情、风格等（即忠实于原文的内容，包括思想、感情、风格等（第一位第一位）达达intelligibility即用词正确得体，行文流畅通顺（即用词正确得体，行文流畅通顺（必须的必须的）；）；雅雅elegance即追求译文的古雅（即追求译文的古雅（追求目标追求目标）。）。Exam: he left angrily.Exam: he left angrily.直译：他愤怒的离去。直译：他愤怒的离去。/ /他愤然离去。他愤然离去。 他拂袖而去。（古译）他拂袖而去。（古译）音译：音译：Brownie Brownie 布朗尼蛋糕布朗尼蛋糕 （巧克力蛋糕）（巧克力蛋糕） 名称名称 Newport Newport 纽波特纽波特 （新港口）（新港口） 地名地名 laser laser 莱塞，镭射莱塞，镭射 （激光）（激光） 术名术名音意译混译音意译混译: : acrowax acrowax 艾克罗石蜡艾克罗石蜡 （艾克罗地区产的石蜡）（艾克罗地区产的石蜡）形译：形译： I-bar I-bar 工型钢，工型钢， T-bean TT-bean T型梁型梁 X-ray XX-ray X射线射线科技文章的特点概述 科技文章崇尚严谨周密，概念准确，逻科技文章崇尚严谨周密，概念准确，逻辑性强，行文简练，重点突出，句式严整，辑性强，行文简练，重点突出，句式严整，少有变化，常用少有变化，常用前置性陈述前置性陈述，即在句中将，即在句中将主要信息尽量前置，通过主语传递主要信主要信息尽量前置，通过主语传递主要信息。息。 简而言之，科技文章的特点：简而言之，科技文章的特点：清晰、准清晰、准确、精练、严密确、精练、严密。1 1、大量使用名词化结构、大量使用名词化结构英语与汉语的一个明显不同点：汉语中动词占优胜，动词使英语与汉语的一个明显不同点：汉语中动词占优胜，动词使用的范围很广；而英语中用的范围很广；而英语中名词占优势名词占优势，名词使用范围很广。，名词使用范围很广。 科技文体更是如此。科技文体更是如此。原因：强调存在的事实，而非某一行为。原因：强调存在的事实，而非某一行为。Exam. Archimedes first discovered the principle of Exam. Archimedes first discovered the principle of displacement of water by solid body.displacement of water by solid body. 译文：阿基米德最先发现固体排水的原理。译文：阿基米德最先发现固体排水的原理。 Exam. Exam. 地球绕轴自转，引起昼夜变化。地球绕轴自转，引起昼夜变化。译文译文1 1：The earth rotates on its own axis, which The earth rotates on its own axis, which causes the change from day to night. causes the change from day to night. 译文译文2 2：The rotation of the earth on its own axis The rotation of the earth on its own axis causes the change from day to night.causes the change from day to night.另另: :科技文体所述的是客观规律，科技文体所述的是客观规律，尽量避免使用第一、第二尽量避免使用第一、第二人称。人称。 Exam. Exam. 炉壁采用耐火砖可大大降低热耗。炉壁采用耐火砖可大大降低热耗。 译文译文1 1：If you use firebricks round the walls of the If you use firebricks round the walls of the boiler, the heat loss can be considerably reduced. boiler, the heat loss can be considerably reduced. 译文译文2 2：The heat loss can be considerably reduced by The heat loss can be considerably reduced by the use of firebricks round the walls of the the use of firebricks round the walls of the boiler.boiler.译文译文3 3：the use of firebricks round the boiler can the use of firebricks round the boiler can considerably reduce the heat loss.considerably reduce the heat loss.2 2、广泛使用被动句、广泛使用被动句科技文章侧重叙事推理，强调客观准确。科技文章侧重叙事推理，强调客观准确。使用被动句的情况：不必说出主语、不愿说出主语或说不使用被动句的情况：不必说出主语、不愿说出主语或说不出主语。科技文体往往是前后两种。出主语。科技文体往往是前后两种。Exam. Attention must be paid to the working Exam. Attention must be paid to the working temperature of the machine.temperature of the machine. You must pay attention to the working You must pay attention to the working temperature of the machine.temperature of the machine.译文：要注意机器的工作温度。译文：要注意机器的工作温度。Exam. Exam. 中美之间已经建立了外交关系。中美之间已经建立了外交关系。译文：译文：Diplomatic relations have been established Diplomatic relations have been established between China and the United States of America.between China and the United States of America.Exam. Exam. 3 3、常使用非限定动词、常使用非限定动词非限制性动词：分词短语、分词独立结构、不定式、介词非限制性动词：分词短语、分词独立结构、不定式、介词加名词短语。加名词短语。Exam. A direct current is a current which flows Exam. A direct current is a current which flows always in the same direction.always in the same direction.=A direct current is a current flowing always in the =A direct current is a current flowing always in the same direction.same direction.译文：直流电是一种总是沿同一方向流动的电流。译文：直流电是一种总是沿同一方向流动的电流。Exam. Vibrating objects produce sound waves and each Exam. Vibrating objects produce sound waves and each vibration produces one sound wave.vibration produces one sound wave.= Vibrating objects produce sound waves, each = Vibrating objects produce sound waves, each vibration producing one sound wave.vibration producing one sound wave.译文：振动着的物体产生声波，每一次振动产生一个声波译文：振动着的物体产生声波，每一次振动产生一个声波. . 4 4、大量使用后置定语、大量使用后置定语1 1、介词短语、介词短语 The forces due to friction are called frictional The forces due to friction are called frictional forces.forces.译文：由于摩擦而产生的力叫摩擦力。译文：由于摩擦而产生的力叫摩擦力。A call for paper is now being issued.A call for paper is now being issued.译文：征集论文的通知现正陆续发出。译文：征集论文的通知现正陆续发出。 2 2、形容词或短语、形容词或短语In radiation, thermal energy is transformed into In radiation, thermal energy is transformed into radiant energy, similar in nature to light.radiant energy, similar in nature to light. 3 3、副词、副词The air outside pressed the side in.The air outside pressed the side in.4 4、单个分词、单个分词The results obtained must be checked.The results obtained must be checked.5 5、定语从句、定语从句5 5、常用句型、常用句型1. It 1. It thatthat句型句型 如：如：It is believed that It is believed that / /据信据信; It is proved that ; It is proved that / /已经证实、有人证实已经证实、有人证实; It ; It is reported thatis reported that/ / 据报道据报道2.2.被动句型被动句型 Computers may be classified as analog Computers may be classified as analog and digital.and digital.3.as3.as结构句型结构句型 Microcomputers are very small in Microcomputers are very small in size, as is shown in Fig. 5.size, as is shown in Fig. 5.4.4.分词短语句型分词短语句型 The resistance being very high, The resistance being very high, the current in the circuit was low.the current in the circuit was low.5.5.省略句结构句型省略句结构句型 An object, once in motion, An object, once in motion, will keep on moving because of its inertia.will keep on moving because of its inertia.6 6、长句较多，复合词及缩略词多、长句较多，复合词及缩略词多复合词：复合词：feed-back, on-and-off-the-road, GIS-feed-back, on-and-off-the-road, GIS-BasedBased（geographical information systemgeographical information system）, , biotechnology, biochemicalbiotechnology, biochemical缩略词：缩略词：maths=mathematicsmaths=mathematics，lab=laboratorylab=laboratoryASCE=American Society of Civil EngineeringASCE=American Society of Civil EngineeringMPM=masterMPM=masters in project managements in project management专业英语翻译基本技巧常见英语从句的译法常见英语从句的译法定语从句的译法定语从句的译法(1)(1)译成相互独立的并列分句译成相互独立的并列分句 对于一般的非限定性定语从句，往往采用对于一般的非限定性定语从句，往往采用分译法分译法。即。即将主句译成独立的分句，然后重复关系代词所代替的名词将主句译成独立的分句，然后重复关系代词所代替的名词做为第二个分句的主语。做为第二个分句的主语。The tendons are frequently passed through The tendons are frequently passed through continuous channels formed by continuous channels formed by metal or plastic metal or plastic ducts, whichducts, which are positioned securely in the forms are positioned securely in the forms before the concrete is cast.before the concrete is cast.译文：预应力钢筋束要穿入用金属管货塑胶管制成的连续孔译文：预应力钢筋束要穿入用金属管货塑胶管制成的连续孔道中，而道中，而金属管或塑胶管金属管或塑胶管在混凝土浇筑之前被稳稳的固定在混凝土浇筑之前被稳稳的固定在模板之中。在模板之中。（2 2）转译成状语从句）转译成状语从句 很多情况下，英语的定语从句兼有状语从句的功能，很多情况下，英语的定语从句兼有状语从句的功能，在逻辑意义上往往与所限定的词有表示在逻辑意义上往往与所限定的词有表示“目的目的”、“结果结果”、“原因原因”、“假设假设”、“让步让步”等关系。等关系。Iron, Iron, whichwhich is not so strong as steel, finds wide is not so strong as steel, finds wide application.application.译文译文: :虽然虽然铁的强度不如钢，但是它仍有广泛用途（表示让铁的强度不如钢，但是它仍有广泛用途（表示让步）步）This is particular important in fine-grained soils This is particular important in fine-grained soils wherewhere the water can be sucked up near the surface the water can be sucked up near the surface by capillary attraction.by capillary attraction.译文：这一点在细颗粒土壤中尤其重要，译文：这一点在细颗粒土壤中尤其重要，因为因为在这种土壤中，在这种土壤中，由于毛细引力，水能被吸引到靠近表面的地方。（表示原由于毛细引力，水能被吸引到靠近表面的地方。（表示原因）因）主语从句的译法主语从句的译法 在专业英语中，经常使用带形式主语在专业英语中，经常使用带形式主语itit的主语从句，的主语从句，即以引导词即以引导词itit作形式主语并放在句首，而把从句（真正的作形式主语并放在句首，而把从句（真正的主语）放在谓语之后。主语）放在谓语之后。(1)(1)译成宾语从句译成宾语从句It It is generally accepted that fatigue strength is is generally accepted that fatigue strength is drastically lower if the concrete is cracked.drastically lower if the concrete is cracked.译文：人们普遍认为，混凝土若开裂，其疲劳强度就会大大译文：人们普遍认为，混凝土若开裂，其疲劳强度就会大大降低。降低。（2 2）译成并列分句）译成并列分句It It remains to be confirmed that epoxy coating will remains to be confirmed that epoxy coating will retain their integrity over long periods of time retain their integrity over long periods of time in alkaline environments.in alkaline environments.译文：译文：环氧涂层在碱性环境中能否保持其完整性，这环氧涂层在碱性环境中能否保持其完整性，这有待进有待进一步证实。一步证实。 （3 3）谓语分译）谓语分译It is a factIt is a fact that no structural material is that no structural material is perfectly elastic.perfectly elastic.译文：译文：事实上，事实上，没有一种结构材料是完全的弹性体。没有一种结构材料是完全的弹性体。状语从句译法状语从句译法 有些状语从句在翻译时候需要进行从句转译，否则译有些状语从句在翻译时候需要进行从句转译，否则译不出原文所表达的实际意义不出原文所表达的实际意义（1 1）由连接词）由连接词whenwhen引导的时间状语从句，在语法形式上一引导的时间状语从句，在语法形式上一般是时间状语，实际上有连接词般是时间状语，实际上有连接词ifif的作用的作用。因此翻译这类。因此翻译这类时间状语从句时往往可以转译成条件状语从句。时间状语从句时往往可以转译成条件状语从句。 如：如：On the site On the site whenwhen further information becomes further information becomes available, the engineer can make changes in his available, the engineer can make changes in his sections and layout, but the drawing office work sections and layout, but the drawing office work will mot have been lost.will mot have been lost.译文：在现场译文：在现场若若能获取更多的信息资料，工程师就可以对他能获取更多的信息资料，工程师就可以对他所做的断面图和设计图进行修改，但是绘图工作也是必不所做的断面图和设计图进行修改，但是绘图工作也是必不可少的。可少的。英语强调句型的译法英语强调句型的译法 英语强调句型英语强调句型“it is (was)it is (was)that (which, who)that (which, who)”几乎可以强调任何一个陈述句的主语、宾语和状语，以突几乎可以强调任何一个陈述句的主语、宾语和状语，以突出其重要性。翻译时，需将其所强调的部分加以突出，例出其重要性。翻译时，需将其所强调的部分加以突出，例如如“正是正是”, ,“正因为正因为”, , “只有只有才才”等。等。It isIt is this kind of steel this kind of steel that that the construction the construction worksite needs most urgently.worksite needs most urgently.译文：建筑工地最急需的译文：建筑工地最急需的正正是这种钢材。是这种钢材。在强调句型中，有时候被强调的不仅是一个词或词组，而且在强调句型中，有时候被强调的不仅是一个词或词组，而且还可能是一个状语从句。还可能是一个状语从句。It is only when piersIt is only when piers（桥墩）（桥墩） for long span bridges for long span bridges are built across wide rivers that cellular are built across wide rivers that cellular cofferdams are often used.cofferdams are often used.译文：只有当在宽阔的河面上修建大跨度桥墩时，才经常使译文：只有当在宽阔的河面上修建大跨度桥墩时，才经常使用格型围堰这种方法。用格型围堰这种方法。英语被动语态的译法英语被动语态的译法（1 1）译成汉语主动句）译成汉语主动句（2 2）译成汉语被动句）译成汉语被动句（3 3）译成独立结构）译成独立结构It is believed thatIt is believed that 有人主张有人主张It is asserted thatIt is asserted that 有人建议有人建议It is stressed thatIt is stressed that 有人强调说有人强调说It is well known thatIt is well known that 众所周知众所周知有时候一些类似的固定句型在翻译时候往往不加主语，如：有时候一些类似的固定句型在翻译时候往往不加主语，如：It is supposed thatIt is supposed that 据推测据推测It is said thatIt is said that 据说据说It must be pointed out thatIt must be pointed out that 必须指出必须指出英语长句翻译英语长句翻译顺译法顺译法 当英语长句的句法结构、时间顺序、逻辑关系符合汉当英语长句的句法结构、时间顺序、逻辑关系符合汉语习惯时，一般应尽量采用顺译。语习惯时，一般应尽量采用顺译。倒译法倒译法 当英语长句的句法结构、时间顺序、逻辑关系与汉语当英语长句的句法结构、时间顺序、逻辑关系与汉语的行文表达习惯相反时，可采用倒译。的行文表达习惯相反时，可采用倒译。综合法综合法 很多英语长句进行翻译的时候，往往综合使用顺译和倒很多英语长句进行翻译的时候，往往综合使用顺译和倒译，不同分句分别采用顺译和倒译，以使得各分句都符合译，不同分句分别采用顺译和倒译，以使得各分句都符合汉语表达习惯。汉语表达习惯。Chapter 1 The Owners Perspective1.2 Major Types of ConstructionResidential Housing Construction居民住宅Institutional and Commercial Building Construction办公商业楼Specialized Industrial Construction专业化工业项目建设Infrastructure and Heavy Construction重大基础项目建设 Chapter 1 The Owners PerspectiveSince most owners are generally interested in acquiring only a specific type of constructed facility, they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them .由于大多数业主通常只对获得特定类型的建筑物感兴趣，因而他们应当对适合他们的建设类型的实务有着一定的了解。Likewise, the construction industry is a conglomeration（混合物） of quite diverse segments and products. Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look for short term advantages. However ,many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation（修复） of existing facilities. It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive. Collectively, the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because, by their individual actions, they can provide incentives（激励） for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction . 这些业主有着他们自己也没有意识到的影响建筑业的能力，因为通过其个人行为，他们可以对建筑业的创新、效率以及质量施加积极的或消极的影响。It is to the interest of all parties that the owners take an active interest in the construction and exercise beneficial influence on the performance of the industry.Residential housing construction includes single-family houses, multi-family dwellings, and high-rise apartments .During the development and construction of such projects, the developers or sponsors who are familiar with the construction industry usually serve as surrogate（代理） owners and take charge, making necessary contractual agreements for design and construction, and arranging the financing and sale of the completed structures .Often, a slight increase in total demand will cause a substantial investment in construction, since many housing projects can be started at different locations by different individuals and developers at the same time .由于许多住宅项目可以在不同的地点由不同的开发商同时开工，因此往往市场总需求的一点微小增加就可能引起此类建筑投资的急剧增加。Institutional and commercial building construction encomprasses a great variety of project types and sizes, such as schools and universities, medical clinics and hospitals, recreational facilities（娱乐设施） and sports stadiums, retail chain stores and large shopping centers, warehouse and light manufacturing plants, and skyscrapers for offices and hotels, as is shown in Figure1-3 .Because of the higher costs and greater sophistication of institutional and commercial buildings in comparison with residential housing, this market segment is shared by fewer competitors .与住宅类房屋建设相比，此类房屋建设成本成本高且功能复杂，所以市场份额由较少的竞争者来瓜分。Specialized industrial construction usually involves very large scale projects, with a high degree of technological complexity, such as oil refineries, steel mills, chemical processing plants and coal-fired or nuclear power plants, as is shown in Figure1-4 .专业化工业项目建设涉及范围很广，含有高等级技术复杂性的这样一类项目建设，包括炼油厂、钢铁厂、化工厂和火力电站、核电站，如图1-4所示。Infrastructure and heavy construction includes projects such as highways, mass transit systems, tunnels, bridges, pipelines, drainage（排水） systems and sewage(污水) treatment plants, as is shown in Figure1-5. Most of these projects are publicly owned and therefore financed either through bonds or taxes. This category of construction is characterized by a high degree of mechanization, which has gradually replaced some labor intensive operations.The engineers and builders engaged in infrastructure construction are usually highly specialized since each segment of the market requires different types of skills .由于不同的项目需要不同的专门技术，参与基础设施项目建设的设计方和建造方都具有相当程度的专业化水平。Traditionally, the owner engages an architectural and engineering (A/E) firm or consortium as technical consultant in developing a preliminary design. After the engineering design and financing arrangements for the project are completed, the owner will enter into a construction contract with a general contractor either through competitive bidding or negotiation.The A/E firms, which are engaged by the owner as the prime professionals for design and inspection, have become more isolated from the construction process. In order to reduce the cost of construction, some owners introduce value engineering, which seeks to reduce the cost of construction by soliciting（征求） a second design that might cost less than the original design produced by the A/E firm. In particular, designs will be closely scrutinized（详细检查） for their constructibility. However, an owner engaging a design/construct firm must insure that the quality of the constructed facility is not sacrificed by the desire to reduce the time or the cost for completing the project. Also, it is difficult to make use of competitive bidding in this type of design/construct process. As a result, owners must be relatively sophisticated（老练） in negotiating realistic and cost-effective construction contracts. In recent years, a new breed of construction managers (CM) offers professional services from the inception to the completion of a construction project. These construction managers mostly come from the ranks of A/E firms or general contractors who may or may not retain dual roles in the service of the owners. Construction ContractorsThe function of a general contractor is to coordinate all tasks in a construction project. Unless the owner performs this function or engages a professional construction manager to do so, a good general contractor who has worked with a team of superintendents（监管者）, specialty contractors or subcontractors together for a number of projects in the past can be most effective in inspiring loyalty and cooperation. Specialty contractors include mechanical, electrical, foundation, excavation（挖掘）, and demolition（拆） contractors among others. They usually serve as subcontractors to the general contractor of a project. In some cases, legal statutes may require an owner to deal with various specialty contractors directly.Major material suppliers include specialty contractors in structural steel fabrication and erection, sheet metal（金属片）, ready mixed concrete delivery, reinforcing steel bar detailers, roofing, glazing etc. Major equipment suppliers for industrial construction include manufacturers of generators, boilers and piping and other equipment.Chapter2 Organizing for Project Management2.1 What is Project ManagementThe management of construction projects requires knowledge of modern management as well as an understanding of the design and construction process. While the relevant technology, institutional arrangements or processes will differ, the management of such projects has much in common with the management of similar types of projects in other specialty or technology domains such as aerospace, pharmaceutical and energy developments.Generally, project management is distinguished from the general management of corporations by the mission-oriented nature of a project. A project organization will generally be terminated when the mission is accomplished. According to the Project Management Institute, the discipline of project management can be defined as follows: Project management is the art of directing and coordinating human and material resources throughout the life of a project by using modern management techniques to achieve predetermined objectives of scope, cost, time, quality and participation satisfaction. 项目管理是在项目的整个周期内，用现代的管理技术指挥和协调人力和物质资源以实现范围、成本、工期、质量和分享成就等预定目标。The basic ingredients for a project management framework may be represented schematically in Figure 2-1.General managementSpecial knowledge domainsSupporting disciplinesSubsequently, the functions of project management for construction generally include the following: Specification of project objectives and plans including delineation of scope, budgeting, scheduling, setting performance requirements, and selecting project participants. Maximization of efficient resource utilization through procurement of labor, materials and equipment according to the prescribed schedule and plan. Implementation of various operations through proper coordination and control of planning, design, estimating, contracting and construction in the entire process. Development of effective communications and mechanisms for resolving conflicts among the various participants. Professional construction management refers to a project management team consisting of a professional construction manager and other participants who will carry out the tasks of project planning, design and construction in an integrated manner. Contractual relationships among members of the team are intended to minimize adversarial （敌对的）relationships and contribute to greater response within the management group.2.2 Professional Construction ManagementA professional construction manager is a firm specialized in the practice of professional construction management which includes: Work with owner and the A/E firms from the beginning and make recommendations（建议） on design improvements, construction technology, schedules and construction economy. Propose design and construction alternatives if appropriate, and analyze the effects of the alternatives on the project cost and schedule. Monitor subsequent development of the project in order that these targets are not exceeded without the knowledge of the owner. Coordinate procurement of material and equipment and the work of all construction contractors, and monthly payments to contractors, changes（变更）, claims（索赔） and inspection for conforming design requirements. Perform other project related services as required by owners. Professional construction management is usually used when a project is very large or complex. The organizational features that are characteristics of mega-projects can be summarized as follows:The overall organizational approach for the project will change as the project advances. The functional organization may change to a matrix which may change to a project organization (not necessarily in this order). Within the overall organization, there will probably be functional, project, and matrix suborganizations all at the same time. This feature greatly complicates（搞复杂） the theory and the practice of management, yet is essential for overall cost effectiveness. The extent to which decision-making will be centralized or decentralized is crucial to the organization of the mega-project（特大型项目）. Although owners and contractors may have different perceptions on project management for construction, they have a common interest in creating an environment leading to successful projects in which performance quality, completion time and final costs are within prescribed limits and tolerances. 尽管业主和承包商对于建设项目管理有着不同的理解，但他们共同关心营造项目的成功环境，以保证项目的质量、工期和最终成本在预定限度和误差内。2.4 Perceptions of Owners and ContractorsFrom the responses of six contractors, the key factors cited for successful projects are: well defined scope extensive early planning good leadership, management and first line supervision positive client relationship with client involvement proper project team chemistry quick response to changes engineering managers concerned with the total project, not just the engineering elements. Conversely, the key factors cited for unsuccessful projects are: ill-defined scope poor management poor planning breakdown in communication between engineering and construction unrealistic scope, schedules and budgets many changes at various stages of progress lack of good project control The significant findings of the interviews with owners are summarized as follows: All owners have the same perception of their own role, but they differ significantly in assuming that role in practice. The owners also differ dramatically in the amount of early planning and in providing information in bid packages. There is a trend toward breaking a project into several smaller projects as the projects become larger and more complex. Most owners recognize the importance of schedule, but they adopt different requirements in controlling the schedule. All agree that people are the key to project success. Chapter3 The Design and Construction Process3.1 Design and Construction as an Integrated SystemBroadly speaking, design is a process of creating the description of a new facility, usually represented by detailed plans and specifications; construction planning is a process of identifying activities and resources required to make the design a physical reality. 广义而言，设计是一个对新设施进行描述的过程，通常用详细的图纸和设计说明来表示；施工规划是确定将设计变为现实所需工作和资源的过程。Several characteristics are unique to the planning of constructed facilities and should be kept in mind even at the very early stage of the project life cycle. These include the following: Nearly every facility is custom designed and constructed, and often requires a long time to complete. Both the design and construction of a facility must satisfy the conditions peculiar to a specific site. Because each project is site specific, its execution is influenced by natural, social and other locational conditions such as weather, labor supply, local building codes, etc. Since the service life of a facility is long, the anticipation of future requirements is inherently difficult. Because of technological complexity and market demands, changes of design plans during construction are not uncommon. In an integrated system, the planning for both design and construction can proceed almost simultaneously, examining various alternatives which are desirable from both viewpoints and thus eliminating（减少） the necessity of extensive revisions（修订） under the guise of value engineering.从双方的共同需求出发审视不同的方案，而不需要再以价值工程的名义进行任何大的变更。As long as the owner does not assume the responsibility for resolving this risk-reward dilemma（风险-回报难题）, the concept of a truly integrated system for design and construction cannot be realized. 只要业主不愿承担解决这种风险-回报难题的责任，一个完全继承的设计/施工体系是不可能实现的。Shop drawings（施工图） represent the assembly details for erecting a structure which should reflect the intent and rationale of the original structural design. 施工详图显示了结构施工中的安装细节，并应反映河源市结构设计的意图和原理。It is interesting to note that European owners are generally more open to new technologies and to share risks with designers and contractors. In particular, they are more willing to accept responsibilities for the unforeseen subsurface conditions in geotechnical（地质） engineering. Consequently, the designers and contractors are also more willing to introduce new techniques in order to reduce the time and cost of construction.However, since the responsibility for preparing shop drawings was traditionally assigned to construction contractors, design professionals took the view that the review process was advisory and assumed no responsibility for their accuracy.Traditionally, the owner is not involved in the preparation and review of shop drawings, and perhaps is even unaware of any potential problems. In the recommended practice, the owner is required to take responsibility for providing adequate time and funding, including approval of scheduling, in order to allow the design professionals and construction contractors to perform satisfactorily. Under Italian law, unforeseen subsurface（地下） conditions are the owners responsibility, not the contractors. This is a striking difference from U.S. construction practice where changed conditions clauses and claims and the adequacy of prebid site（标前现场） investigations are points of contention. In effect, the Italian law means that the owner assumes those risks. But under the same law, a contractor may elect to assume the risks in order to lower the bid price and thereby beat the competition. 3.4 Construction PlanningThe development of a construction plan is very much analogous to（与一样） the development of a good facility design. The planner must weigh the costs and reliability of different options while at the same time insuring technical feasibility.Construction planning is more difficult in some ways since the building process is dynamic as the site and the physical facility change over time as construction proceeds. There are some recommendations or issues that can be addressed to describe the characteristics of good plans, but this does not necessarily tell a planner how to discover a good plan. However, as in the design process, strategies of decomposition in which planning is divided into subproblems and hierarchical planning in which general activities are repeatably subdivided into more specific tasks can be readily adopted in many cases. From the standpoint of construction contractors or the construction divisions of large firms, the planning process for construction projects consists of three stages that take place between the moment in which a planner starts the plan for the construction of a facility to the moment in which the evaluation of the final output of the construction process is finished. The estimate stage involves the development of a cost and duration（工期） estimate for the construction of a facility as part of the proposal of a contractor to an owner. It is the stage in which assumptions of resource commitment to the necessary activities to build the facility are made by a planner. A careful and thorough analysis of different conditions imposed by the construction project design and by site characteristics are taken into consideration to determine the best estimate. The success of a contractor depends upon this estimate, not only to obtain a job but also to construct the facility with the highest profit. The planner has to look for the time-cost combination that will allow the contractor to be successful in his commitment. The result of a high estimate would be to lose the job, and the result of a low estimate could be to win the job, but to lose money in the construction process. In the monitoring and control stage of the construction process, the construction manager has to keep constant track of both activities durations and ongoing costs. It is misleading to think that if the construction of the facility is on schedule or ahead of schedule, the cost will also be on the estimate or below the estimate, especially if several changes are made. Constant evaluation is necessary until the construction of the facility is complete. When work is finished in the construction process, and information about it is provided to the planner, the third stage of the planning process can begin. The evaluation stage is the one in which results of the construction process are matched against the estimate. A planner deals with this uncertainty during the estimate stage. Only when the outcome of the construction process is known is he/she able to evaluate the validity of the estimate. It is in this last stage of the planning process that he or she determines if the assumptions were correct. If they were not or if new constraints emerge, he/she should introduce corresponding adjustments in future planning. 4. Labor, Material and Equipment Utilization4.1Factors Affecting Job-Site ProductivityJob-site productivity is influenced by many factors which can be characterized either as labor characteristics, project work conditions or as non-productive activities. The labor characteristics include: age and experience of workforce leadership and motivation of workforce（劳动力，工人） The project work conditions include among other factors: Job size and complexity. Job site accessibility. Labor availability. Equipment utilization. Contractual agreements. Local climate. Local cultural characteristics, particularly in foreign operations. The non-productive activities associated with a project may or may not be paid by the owner, but they nevertheless take up potential labor resources which can otherwise be directed to the project. The non-productive activities include among other factors: Indirect labor required to maintain the progress of the project Rework for correcting unsatisfactory work Temporary work stoppage due to inclement weather or material shortage Time off for union activities Absentee time, including late start and early quits Non-working holidays Strikes Job-site labor productivity can be estimated either for each craft (carpenter, bricklayer, etc.) or each type of construction (residential housing, processing plant, etc.) under a specific set of work conditions. A base labor productivity may be defined for a set of work conditions specified by the owner or contractor who wishes to observe and measure the labor performance over a period of time under such conditions. A labor productivity index may then be defined as the ratio of the job-site labor productivity under a different set of work conditions to the base labor productivity, and is a measure of the relative labor efficiency of a project under this new set of work conditions. The effects of various factors related to work conditions on a new project can be estimated in advance, some more accurately than others. For example, for very large construction projects, the labor productivity index tends to decrease as the project size and/or complexity increase because of logistic problems（后勤问题） and the learning that the work force must undergo before adjusting to the new environment. Job-site accessibility often may reduce the labor productivity index if the workers must perform their jobs in round about ways, such as avoiding traffic in repaving the highway surface or maintaining the operation of a plant during renovation. Labor availability in the local market is another factor. Shortage of local labor will force the contractor to bring in non-local labor or schedule overtime work or both. In either case, the labor efficiency will be reduced in addition to incurring additional expenses. The degree of equipment utilization and mechanization of a construction project clearly will have direct bearing on job-site labor productivity. The non-productive activities associated with a project should also be examined in order to examine the productive labor yield(有效劳动产出), which is defined as the ratio of direct labor hours（直接工时） devoted to the completion of a project to the potential labor hours. The direct labor hours are estimated on the basis of the best possible conditions at a job site by excluding all factors which may reduce the productive labor yield. For example, in the repaving of highway surface, the flagmen（信号旗手） required to divert traffic represent indirect labor which does not contribute to the labor efficiency of the paving crew if the highway is closed to the traffic. 在重铺高速公路路面时，假如高速公路关闭，疏导 交通的信号旗手就是事对铺路小组劳动没有贡献的简介劳动力。Similarly, for large projects in remote areas, indirect labor may be used to provide housing and infrastructure for the workers hired to supply the direct labor for a project. The labor hours spent on rework to correct unsatisfactory original work represent extra time taken away from potential labor hours. The labor hours related to such activities must be deducted from the potential labor hours in order to obtain the actual productive labor yield. 为了计算实际的有效劳动收益，与这些活动有关的工时必须从可能工时中扣除。4.2 Material Procurement and DeliveryThe main sources of information for feedback and control of material procurement are requisitions, bids and quotations, purchase orders and subcontracts, shipping and receiving documents, and invoices. For projects involving the large scale use of critical resources, the owner may initiate the procurement procedure even before the selection of a constructor in order to avoid shortages and delays. Under ordinary circumstances, the constructor will handle the procurement to shop for materials with the best price/performance characteristics specified by the designer. 在通常情况下，施工方将根据设计者确定的最优价格/性能特征购买材料The materials for delivery to and from a construction site may be broadly classified as : (1) bulk materials（大宗材料）, (2) standard off-the-shelf materials（标准现货材料）, and (3) fabricated members or units（预制构件或单元）. The process of delivery, including transportation, field storage and installation will be different for these classes of materials. The equipment needed to handle and haul these classes of materials will also be different. Bulk materials refer to materials in their natural or semi-processed （半成品）state, such as earthwork to be excavated（土方开挖）, wet concrete mix, etc. which are usually encountered in large quantities in construction. Some bulk materials such as earthwork （土）or gravels（砂） may be measured in bank (solid in site) volume. Obviously, the quantities of materials for delivery may be substantially different when expressed in different measures of volume, depending on the characteristics of such materials. Standard piping（管道） and valves（阀门） are typical examples of standard off-the-shelf materials which are used extensively in the chemical processing industry. Since standard off-the-shelf materials can easily be stockpiled（储存）, the delivery process is relatively simple. Fabricated members such as steel beams（钢梁） and columns（柱子 ）for buildings are pre-processed in a shop to simplify the field erection（安装） procedures. Welded（焊接） or bolted（螺栓） connections are attached partially to the members which are cut to precise dimensions for adequate fit. Similarly, steel tanks and pressure vessels are often partly or fully fabricated before shipping to the field. In general, if the work can be done in the shop where working conditions can better be controlled, it is advisable to do so, provided that the fabricated members or units can be shipped to the construction site in a satisfactory manner at a reasonable cost. As a further step to simplify field assembly, an entire wall panel including plumbing（管道） and wiring（配线） or even an entire room may be prefabricated and shipped to the site. While the field labor is greatly reduced in such cases, materials for delivery are in fact manufactured products with value added by another type of labor. With modern means of transporting construction materials and fabricated units, the percentages of costs on direct labor and materials for a project may change if more prefabricated units are introduced in the construction process. In the construction industry, materials used by a specific craft （工艺）are generally handled by craftsmen（工匠）, not by general labor. Thus, electricians handle electrical materials, pipefitters handle pipe materials, etc. This multiple handling diverts scarce skilled craftsmen and contractor supervision into activities which do not directly contribute to construction. Since contractors are not normally in the freight（货运） business, they do not perform the tasks of freight delivery efficiently. 4.10 Construction EquipmentThe selection of the appropriate type and size of construction equipment often affects the required amount of time and effort and thus the job-site productivity of a project. It is therefore important for site managers and construction planners to be familiar with the characteristics of the major types of equipment most commonly used in construction.Excavation and LoadingOne family of construction machines used for excavation is broadly classified as a crane-shovel （起重挖掘机）as indicated by the variety of machines in Figure 4-3. The crane-shovel consists of three major components: a carrier底盘 or mounting （基础）which provides mobility and stability for the machine. a revolving deck（旋转底盘） or turntable（转盘） which contains the power and control units. a front end attachment（附属） which serves the special functions in an operation. The type of mounting for all machines in Figure 4-3 is referred to as crawler mounting（履带式底盘）, which is particularly suitable for crawling over relatively rugged（崎岖的） surfaces at a job site. Other types of mounting include truck mounting and wheel mounting which provide greater mobility between job sites, but require better surfaces for their operation. The revolving deck includes a cab（驾驶室） to house the person operating the mounting and/or the revolving deck. The types of front end attachments in Figure 4-3 might include a crane with hook, claim shell（抓铲挖土机）, dragline（拉铲）, backhoe（反铲）, shovel（正铲） and piledriver（打桩机）.A tractor consists of a crawler mounting and a non-revolving cab. When an earth moving blade（刀片） is attached to the front end of a tractor, the assembly is called a bulldozer（推土机）. When a bucket（铲斗） is attached to its front end, the assembly is known as a loader or bucket loader. There are different types of loaders designed to handle most efficiently materials of different weights and moisture（湿度） contents.Scrapers（铲运机） are multiple-units of tractor-truck and blade-bucket assemblies with various combinations to facilitate the loading and hauling of earthwork. Major types of scrapers include single engine two-axle or three axle scrapers, twin-engine all-wheel-drive scrapers, elevating scrapers, and push-pull scrapers. Each type has different characteristics of rolling resistance, maneuverability stability（机动稳定性）, and speed in operation.Compaction and Grading（压实与平整场地）（压实与平整场地）The function of compaction equipment is to produce higher density in soil mechanically. The basic forces used in compaction are static weight, kneading（捣）, impact （冲击）and vibration. The degree of compaction that may be achieved depends on the properties of soil, its moisture content, the thickness of the soil layer for compaction and the method of compaction. The function of grading equipment is to bring the earthwork to the desired shape and elevation. Major types of grading equipment include motor graders（平地机） and grade trimmers. The former is an all-purpose machine for grading and surface finishing, while the latter is used for heavy construction because of its higher operating speed. Drilling and Blasting（钻孔与爆破）（钻孔与爆破）Rock excavation is an audacious（危险的） task requiring special equipment and methods. The degree of difficulty depends on physical characteristics of the rock type to be excavated, such as grain size（粒径）, planes of weakness（软弱面）, weathering, brittleness（脆度） and hardness. The task of rock excavation includes loosening, loading, hauling and compacting. The loosening operation is specialized for rock excavation and is performed by drilling, blasting or ripping（撕裂）Lifting and ErectingDerricks （起重机）are commonly used to lift equipment of materials in industrial or building construction. A derrick consists of a vertical mast（柱）and an inclined（倾斜的） boom （吊杆）sprouting from the foot of the mast. The mast is held in position by guys(牵索) or stifflegs connected to a base while a topping lift links the top of the mast and the top of the inclined boom. A hook in the road line hanging from the top of the inclined boom is used to lift loads. Guy derricks may easily be moved from one floor to the next in a building under construction while stiffleg derricks（刚性柱起重机） may be mounted on tracks for movement within a work area. 牵索人字起重机可以方便地从正在施工的建筑中一个楼层转移到另一个楼层，而刚性柱起重机可安装在轨道上在作业区内移动。Tower cranes （塔吊）are used to lift loads to great heights and to facilitate the erection of steel building frames. Horizon boom type tower cranes are most common in highrise building construction. Inclined boom type tower cranes are also used for erecting steel structures. Mixing and Paving（搅拌与铺设）（搅拌与铺设）Basic types of equipment for paving include machines for dispensing concrete and bituminous materials for pavement surfaces. Concrete mixers may also be used to mix portland cement, sand, gravel and water in batches for other types of construction other than paving. 除了铺路，混凝固搅拌机同样可搅拌波特兰（普通）水泥、砂子、石子和水而用于其他类型的工程。A truck mixer refers to a concrete mixer mounted on a truck which is capable of transporting ready mixed concrete from a central batch plant to construction sites A paving mixer（铺路机） is a self propelled concrete mixer equipped with a boom and a bucket（斗） to place concrete at any desired point within a roadway.It can be used as a stationary mixer or used to supply slipform pavers that are capable of spreading, consolidating and finishing a concrete slab without the use of forms. 它可以作为一个固定的搅拌机，也可以作为滑模铺料机，后者不需要模板就能够进行布料、振捣和抹平混凝土路面。A bituminous（沥青） distributor is a truck-mounted plant for generating liquid bituminous materials and applying them to road surfaces through a spray bar connected to the end of the truck. 专业信函在项目前期、中期和后期，业主、工程师和承包商之间不可避免的要发生一些函件来往，如一些通知、告知书、回复等必须用书面的形势进行。项目履约期间的备忘录、往来信函、签证是重要的证据。务必妥善保存。Commencement of WorksDate:Dear Sirs,In accordance with Clause 8 of the Conditions of Contract and on behalf of the Employer ,we hereby give you notice to commence the Works as soon as is reasonably possible .For the purposes of the Contract , the Commencement Date will be _.You are required to proceed with the Works with due expedition and without delay .Kindly acknowledge receipt of this notice .Yours faithfullyEngineerFrom the Contractor to the Employer/Engineer Dear Sirs,Sub: Data Found Incorrect for Setting Out the Works With reference to your Site Plan showing dimensions for setting out the Works ,we have to inform you that after our own site survey ,we have found the following errors and omissions on your drawing : Will you please issue a revised drawing showing correct dimensions so that we may proceed with the setting out of the Works ? Since setting-out is scheduled to commence on Monday next(May 20 th, 1995), it is essential that we receive your revised no later than this coming Friday. Yours faithfully, ContractorDear Sirs,Sub: Construction Acceleration Further to our notice of delay dated_ and your letter of _ in reply ,we note that your letter purports(声称声称) ) to instruct us to take steps, following the cessation（停止）停止） of the current exceptionally adverse weather （不利天气）不利天气）conditions ,to accelerate so as to make up lost time . We would respectfully point out to you that the Contract does not empower(授权授权) ) you so to instruct us and we are not prepared to take any such steps except with express agreement of the Employer to reimburse（偿还）偿还） us for the additional costs involved plus a reasonable allowance for our overheads and profit. Such an agreement would, of course, be supplementary to the Contract and its terms will be negotiated with the Employer to whom we are sending a copy of this letter. Yours faithfully,ContractorDear Sirs,Sub: Cost for Preparing the Change ProposalWith reference to your Request for Change Proposal , we are pleased to notify you of the approximate cost of preparing the Change Proposal in accordance with the Conditions of the Contract . We acknowledge that your agreement to the cost of preparing the Chang Proposal, in accordance with Sub-clause 13.3 , is required before estimating the cost for change work .The following is the cost for preparation of Change Proposal:(1)Engineering Amount1)engineer _hrs_rate/hr=_2)draftsperson _hrs_rate/hr=_ (制图员）（小时费率） Subtotal _hrs Total Engineering Cost _ （规划设计费）(2（2)Other CostTotal Cost (1)+(2) _We look forward to your reply. _ Yours faithfully,ContractorChapter5 Cost Estimation5.2 Types of Construction Cost EstimatesThe required levels of accuracy of construction cost estimates vary at different stages of project development, ranging from ball park figures in the early stage to fairly reliable figures for budget control prior to construction. Since design decisions made at the beginning stage of a project life cycle are more tentative than those made at a later stage, the cost estimates made at the earlier stage are expected to be less accurate. Generally, the accuracy of a cost estimate will reflect the information available at the time of estimation. Construction cost estimates may be viewed from different perspectives because of different institutional requirements. In spite of the many types of cost estimates used at different stages of a project, cost estimates can best be classified into three major categories according to their functions. A construction cost estimate serves one of the three basic functions: design, bid and control. Design Estimates. For the owner or its designated design professionals, the types of cost estimates encountered run parallel with the planning and design as follows: Screening estimates (or order of magnitude estimates) Preliminary estimates (or conceptual estimates) Detailed estimates (or definitive estimates) Engineers estimates based on plans and specifications For each of these different estimates, the amount of design information available typically increases. Bid Estimates. For the contractor, a bid estimate submitted to the owner either for competitive bidding or negotiation consists of direct construction cost including field supervision, plus a markup to cover general overhead and profits. The direct cost of construction for bid estimates is usually derived from a combination of the following approaches. Subcontractor quotations Quantity takeoffs Construction procedures. Control Estimates. For monitoring the project during construction, a control estimate is derived from available information to establish: Budget estimate for financing Budgeted cost after contracting but prior to construction Estimated cost to completion during the progress of construction.