Introduction楚军外国语学院楚军外国语学院English GrammarWhat is Grammar? Grammar is of Greek origin, spelled “grammatik”or “grammatik techn”. Grammar comes from Greek “graphein” (to write), thus grammar means “technique to write.Grammar is a branch of philosophy, concerning art of writing. (Aristotle). What is the status of Grammar? Semantics Grammar Phonology or Writing system“Meaning is conveyed via grammar in sound or with written symbols.”Introduction to Grammatical Theories:Traditional grammar;Historical-comparative grammar;Structural grammar;Transformational-generative grammar;Functional grammar.Introduction to Grammatical Layers:Text/Discourse (Text Grammar/Text Linguistics) Sentence Clause Phrase Word Morpheme (Morphology) Phoneme (Phonology)Introduction to the Grammatical System of the English languageI. Morphology:1. morphological structure (prefixes, roots, suffixes)2.word-formation processes: compounding, derivation, conversion; acronymy (initialism), clipping, blending, back-formation, words from proper nouns, reduplication, neoclassical formationIntroduction to the Grammatical System of the English language II. Lexical grammar (phrases) 1. noun phrases (number, case, gender) 2. determiners (pronouns, articles, unit nouns) 3. verb phrases: auxiliaries; finite verb phrases: tense/aspect/voice/mood/subject-verb concordIntroduction to the Grammatical System of the English languageNon-finite verb phrases: infinitives, -ing participles, -ed participles4.Adjective and adverb phrases (comparative degrees)5. Prepositional phrasesIntroduction to the Grammatical System of the English languageIII. Syntax: types of sentence patterns, there-existential pattern, it-pattern, coordinate construction, subordinate construction: nominal clauses, adjectival clauses, adverbial clausesIntroduction to the Grammatical System of the English languageIV. Text grammar: Cohesion in the English language: substitution, ellipsis, repetition, inversion, lexical cohesion.Subject-verb AgreementGeneral introduction to principles of subject-verb agreement:Grammatical concord:Few students are really lazy.Notional concord:The family were at table when we arrived.Principle of Proximity.He or I am right.nouns ending in s as subject:1) Disease nouns: arthritis, bronchitis, mumps, diabetes + is; But: rickets, measles + is/are. 2) Game nouns: “darts, marbles, billiards, bowls, dominoes” as a game + is; But cards +are; Marbles vary in kind and quality. 3) Discipline nouns ending in ics: “physics, mathematics, politics, acoustics, economics” as a discipline + is; but +are if they are used in meanings other than discipline.The economics of the project are still being considered.nouns ending in s as subject:4) Place nouns ending in s: the United States, the United Nations +is; When the place nouns are archipelago, mountain range, falls, straits, e.g. the Straits of Gibraltar +are.5) Scissors, pincers, glasses, shorts, trousers, pants, suspenders, scales, pliers, jeans +are;6) Archives, arms, clothes, contents, eaves, fireworks, goods, minutes, morals, thanks, wages +are;nouns ending in s as subject:7) ings: clippings, belongings, sweepings, earnings, savings, diggings, filings, lodgings, surroundings +are;8) barracks, headquarters, means, series, species, works +are/is;9) Whats the odds? The odds are against us.10) His remains lie in the churchyard. The remains of the meal is/are fed to the pigs.Collective nouns as subject:Police, people, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin +are;Foliage, machinery, jewelry, equipment, clothing, merchandise, furniture +is;Audience, family, team, class, government, committee, board +are/is.Coordinate structure as subject:1) the bread and butter is; the bread and the butter are; her teacher and lover is; her teacher and her lover are; good and bad taste are; American and Dutch beer are; the eighth and the last chapter are; the eighth and last chapter is.Every/each/no/many a boy and (every/each/no/many a) girl is.Coordinate structure as subject:2) when the noun phrases are coordinated by “or, nor, eitheror, neithernor, not onlybut also”, we use the principle of proximity: He or I am right.3) when the noun phrases are coordinated by “as much as, no less than; rather than, more than; as well as, in addition to, with, along with, together with, including; except, with the exception of, apart from, etc.”, the verb agrees with the first noun phrase: He as well as I is right.a noun phrase of definite quantity as subject:1) six months is, but the last six months are;2) two-thirds/ 30 percent of +n. +is/are;3) Forty minus fifteen leaves 25. Forty divided by 8 is five. Seven plus/and five make/makes 12. Five times/ multiplied by eight is/are 40. Six sevens are 42.4) one in/to/out of twenty students are/is. a noun phrase of indefinite quantity as subject:1)all/some/none/half/most/the rest /the remainder of n.+is/are.2) Lots/heaps/loads/scads/plenty of n. +is/are.3) A portion/a series/a panel of +n. +is;4) Many a student, more than one student, one student after another, study after study + is,5) Neither /either of n. is.On other occasions:1)Subject clauses as subject: What cased the accident is a complete mystery. What I think and say are none of your business.2) Non-finite clauses as subject: To climb mountains requires courage. Telling lies is wrong.3) In relative clauses: She is the only one of those girls who wants to dance every night.4) In cleft sentence: Its I who am a teacher. Its me that is a teacher.5) In there-pattern: Theres a girl and five boys in the classroom. Noun PhrasesI. Classification of noun phrases:A. According to word structure, Simple noun: man, chair; Compound noun: armchair, flatfoot; Derivative noun: arrangement, carelessness. I. Classification of noun phrases:B. according to lexical meaning: Common noun; Proper noun. Common noun can be subdivided into: Individual noun: man, woman; Collective noun: police, machinery, family; Material noun: air, rice; Abstract noun: idea, thought. I. Classification of noun phrases:C. according to the grammatical meaning: Countable noun; Uncountable noun.Please note: whether a noun is countable or uncountable lies in the actual use:business, care, success/failure, coffee, glass, youth, hair, room, man/fool, duck, Webster/Lei Feng, etc.2. The number of nouns:1) the countable noun has singular and plural numbers.Regular plurals: (see pp.42-44: the table)Irregular plurals: (see pp.44-45)-on-a; -um -a; -us i; -sis -ses; -a -ae; -eau -eaus/-eaux; -ix -ixes/-ices2. The number of nouns:2) The number of collective nouns, material nouns, abstract nouns and proper nouns (see pp.45-48) 3) The plural of compound nouns: aides-de-camp, lookers-on; menservants, women drivers; air-raids, boy friends.2. The number of nouns:4) The plural of some other special nouns: mopeds, VIPs/VIPs, Drs., Nos., ll.5-10, pp.100-110. two ls, in 1960s/1960s, your 7s and 9s, I wont accept your ifs and buts. But me no buts.2. The number of nouns:5) The number of nouns used as pre-modifiers: a. using singular noun: a tooth brush; a stamp collection; student activities; a five-year plan; a four-storey building b. using plural nouns: a greetings telegram; a goods train; a sports car; the wages policyCf: a health workera healthy worker an efficiency expertan efficient expert3. the use of partitive nouns/unit nouns:1)A piece of: a bit of advice; an article of news a cake of soap; an ear of corn a bottle of milk; a flash of lightning2) A group of: a pair of shoes; a flock of birds a school of whales; a herd of cattle4. the case of nouns:1) Classification of cases: common case: noun as subject, object and complement. genitive case: -s genitive and of-genitive4. the case of nouns:2) the forms of s genitive:Brownings poems; the International Womens Day;the workers achievements;the editor-in-chiefs office, an hour and a halfs talk;Americas and Englands problems,America and Englands problems;Dickens/Dickenss novels, Marxs life.4. the case of nouns:3) the meaning of s genitive:to show possession: Mrs Camerons passport,to show subject-verb relation: the Prime Ministers arrival,to show verb-object relation: the enemys defeat,to show the source: Marys letter,to show the category: mens shoes,to show the time, value, etc.: an hours work4. the case of nouns:4) the use of of-genitive:to show possession: the trunk of an elephant=an elephants trunkto show subject-verb relation: the claim of the buyersto show verb-object relation: the occupation of the island,to show the source: the comedies of Shakespeare.4. the case of nouns:5) Independent genitive:Her memory is like an elephants.She often weekends at her uncles.Joe lives near St. Pauls.Im going to the barbers after class.4. the case of nouns:6) Double genitive: A friend of my fathers,*A friend of a doctors,*A cover of the book,*The daughter of Mrs Smiththis clever idea of your sistersthat naughty boy of my neighbors4. the case of nouns:6) Double genitive: a portrait of Mr Browns a portrait of Mr Brown a criticism of Mr Hamiltons a criticism of Mr Hamiltons a bone of the dogs a bone of the dog5. the gender of nouns:Classification of gender: masculine gender: son, cock, bull feminine gender: daughter, hen, cow common gender: child, chicken, cattle neuter gender: book, sky, friendship 5. the gender of nouns:More examples: bridegroombride; nephewniece; widowerwidow; bachelorspinster; wizardwitch; tutorgoverness; actoractress; mastermistress; stallionmare; drakeduck; gandergoose; dogbitch; dictatordictatrix; heroherone DukeDuchess; MarquisMarchioness; CountCountess; ViscountViscountess; BaronBaroness.5. the gender of nouns:Still more examples: boy friendgirl friend; boy cousingirl cousin; man driverwoman driver; he-goatshe-goat; he-bearshe-bear; bull-elephantcow-elephant; cock-sparrowhen-sparrow; male frogfemale frog