英语语音课程教学教案英语语音课程教学教案Unit 1Unit 1Unit 2Unit 2Unit 3Unit 3Unit 4Unit 4Unit 5Unit 5Unit 6Unit 6Unit 7Unit 7Unit8Unit8Phoneme and TranscriptionPhoneme and TranscriptionThe Pure VowelsThe Pure VowelsThe DiphthongsThe DiphthongsRules of Reading of English Vowel LettersRules of Reading of English Vowel LettersThe ConsonantsThe ConsonantsConnected Speech (1)Connected Speech (1)Connected Speech (2)Connected Speech (2)Connected Speech (3)Connected Speech (3)1Unit 1 Phoneme and TranscriptionUnit 1 Phoneme and TranscriptionPurpose:Purpose:The students will learn some basic concepts in English pronunciation. We are going to learnsomething about syllables, stress and rhythm in English. At the same time, they will learn to saygreetings and farewell with appropriate pronunciation and intonation in English.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition for “syllable” and “stressedsyllable”, then a definition for “rhythm” and “rhythmic pattern”;2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, compare thedegrees of stress and different rhythmic patterns;3.Practice imitate the typical stress patterns and rhythmic patterns inEnglish.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1. Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students know about stresspatterns and rhythmic patters in English, make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire to find out theanswers themselves.2. Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing thetypical stress patters and rhythmic patterns in English.3. Ask the students to listen to the tapes to mark out the stressed syllables in words.4. Ask the students to listen to the tapes to mark out the stressed words in sentences.5. Have the students imitate the stress patterns and rhythmic patterns to experiencethe rhythm in speech.6. Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.7. Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the rhythmic patterns in their speech.8. Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the stress the rhythm in speech.9. Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.10. Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.11. Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.12. Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during the nextsession.Basic Concepts: Syllables, Stress & RhythmBasic Concepts: Syllables, Stress & RhythmIn this unit, we are going to learn some basic concepts in English pronunciation.We are going to learn something about syllables, stress and rhythm in English. At the2same time, we are going to learn to say greetings and farewell with appropriatepronunciation and intonation in English.First of all, lets look at the syllable in English.Please listen to the following word: driveway.Now, tell me, how many syllables there are in this word? Right. There are two.Please listen to the following sentence: Drive him away.Tell me, how many syllables there are in this sentence? Right. There are four.IntroductionIntroductionSo. What is a syllable?A syllable is a word part and the basic unit of English rhythm. English words canhave one, two, three or even more syllables. In the word driveway, there are twosyllables. In the sentence Drive him away, there are four.What is a stressed syllable?In English words with more than one syllable, one of them will receive morestress than the others. Stressed syllables are those that are marked in the dictionary asstressed. For example, in the word driveway, the first syllable i s a stressed syllablewhile the second syllable is not.Stressed syllables in English are usually longer, louder, and higher in pitch.Listen to the following example:baNAAAAnaSyllable 1Syllable 2(short)(long)Syllable 3(short)The word banana has 3 syllables. Syllable 1 is not stressed and so is short.Syllable 2 is stressed and so is long with a clear vowel sound /:/. Syllable 3 is notstressed and so is also short.Here is a short summary about the stressed and unstressed syllables:Stressed syllables are strong syllables. Unstressed syllables are weak syllables.Stressed syllables:-are long-have a pitch change-have full vowel sounds.Unstressed syllables:-are short-often have a reduced vowel sound.Now lets look at the rhythm in English.We all know that correct pronunciation of the individual English sounds isimportant in communication. The way the sounds are organized, however, is oftenmore crucial for understanding. The rhythm of English, for example, is one of the twomajor organizing structures that native speakers rely on to process speech.What is rhythm?3Rhythm can be found everywhere in life: the sound of a clock, the beating of theheart, the strokes of a swimmer, and of course in poetry and music. But rhythm inlanguage is less familiar because it is less obvious. The rhythm of a language ischaracterized by the timing pattern of successive syllables. In some languages, everysyllable is given about the same length, while in others, syllables vary in length. InEnglish, strong beats are called stress - the heart of the rhythmic pattern.音节、重音与节奏音节、重音与节奏本单元将向大家介绍英语语音语调的基本概念, 主要介绍英语语音的音节、重音和节奏规律。首先，让我们先来看看英语的音节：单词 driveway 有两个音节。句子 Drive him away 有四个音节。何谓“音节”？音节是一个言语单位，常常比一个语音长，但比一个单词短。一个英语单词可以有一个、两个三个或更多的音节。就像我们刚看到的单词 driveway 有两个音节, 句子 Drive him away 有四个音节。同时，音节又是英语发音节奏的最基本的单位。何谓“重读音节”？如果一个英语单词中拥有两个或两个以上的音节，其中一个音节会比其周围的音节要响亮些。重读音节通常在词典中有所标注。例如，单词 driveway 的第一个音节就是重读音节，而它的第二个音节就是非重读音节。英语中的重读音节在发音过程中往往要比非重读音节要长一些，响亮一些，同时音调也稍高一些。例如， “banana”一词有三个音节。第一个音节是非重音，所以发音所需时间比较短。第二个音节是重读，所以元音/ :/发的比较长，清晰响亮。第三个音节同样属非重音，所以发音所需时间也很短。可见，重读音节与非重读音节分别有以下特征：重读音节: 声音响亮 延续时间较长 音调较高非重读音节: 1.延续时间较短 2.元音发音弱化英语话语节奏：英语话语节奏：学会发好每一个英语音素，是学好英语语音的基础，正确的发音在语言交流中非常重要。然而， 语音的组合方式对于听者的理解也起着至关重要的作用。英语的话语节奏就是其中之一。何谓“英语话语节奏”？节奏在我们的日常生活中无所不在：滴答转动的钟表声，砰砰不停的心脏跳动，游泳的划水节拍，优美诗句和音乐的韵律，这些都是节奏的体现。话语节奏与前面我们所提到的日常生活中显而易见的节奏不同之处在于： 语言中的话语节奏不是那么明显与绝对。 语言中的节奏特征是由一连串音节的长短来体现的。有一些语言的话语特点是：每一个音节的音长呈大致相同的趋势，这种音节彼此距离大致相等的现象被称为 “以音节定时” 节奏。 汉语的话语节奏就有这样的倾向。例如， 当我说： “面包加牛奶” ， 这里含 5 个音节， 所需的时间暂且定为 5 个时段。如果我要说： “一片面包加一杯牛奶” ，这里含 9 个音节，所需的时间就是 9 个时段。英语的话语节奏则显不同的趋势。例如，在“bread and milk”短语中，音节数是三个，其中“bread”与“milk”是重读音节。在“some bread and somemilk”这一短语中，音节数是5 个，其中重读的也是“bread”与“milk” 。虽然4这两个短语的音节数不同，但是在话语中，它们所需的时间却是大致相同的，因为它们有一个共同点：重读音节数相同。 这种重读音节彼此距离相等的现象就是“以重音定时”节奏。掌握这一英语话语的节奏规律。对于提高我们英语口语的流利程度和自然程度以及英语听力理解快速解码的能力至关重要。正因为如此， 我们将重音与节奏的学习放在中心与突出的位置， 从第一单元的概念介绍开始，贯穿整个语音课程学习的始终。5Unit 2Unit 2The Pure VowelsThe Pure VowelsFront Vowels & Central VowelsFront Vowels & Central VowelsPurpose:Purpose:The students will learnthe consonants: Front Vowels & Central VowelsFront Vowels & Central Vowels in English.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition for Front Vowels & Central Vowels Front Vowels & Central Vowels ;2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, compare them withother vowels;3.Practice imitate the sounds and do practice.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1.Stimulating: Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students knowabout what they are required to learn. Make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire tofind out theanswers themselves.2.Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing thetypical pronunciation in English.3.Ask the students to listen to the tapes to make a good discrimination of the soundsin focus.4.Have the students imitate the sound in focus.5.Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.6.Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the sounds in focus correct in their pronunciation.7.Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the sounds in focus in speech.8.Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.9.Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.10.Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.11.Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during thenext session.In this unit, we will learn the front vowels and central vowels in English.Vowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passesfrom the larynx to the lips. There are 20 vowels in English, among which 12 are purevowels and 8 are diphthongs. The English pure vowels can be classified according to1) the height of the raised part of the tongue;2) the part of the tongue raised, and3) the position of the lips, i.e. whether they are rounded or unrounded.6There are four front vowels in English: /i:/, / /, /e/ and / /. The reason these arecalled front vowels is that the tongue body is shifted forward, causing the vowels tobe produced in the front of the mouth. In addition, the front vowels may besubdivided into those that are high (or close), like /i:/ and / /, mid, like /e/, and low(or open), like /. For the two vowels in the high front space, /i:/ and / /, the tongueis close to the hard palate. Likewise, for the low vowel / the tongue is nearly flatand the lower jaw more open than for the other front vowels.There are two central vowels in English: / :/ and / They are called centralvowels because they tend to be produced at a point midway between the front andback vowels and between the high and low vowels.It has become traditional to locate vowels on a four-sided figure. The following is adescription of the four English front vowels and two central vowels.i:e/i:/ & /i:/ & /, /,/i:/ is a very common sound in the worlds languages. It is made by raising thebody of the tongue from its rest position and shifting it forward. The / sound ismade by lowering the tongue slightlylowering the tongue slightly from the high-front position for /i:/. Besides,/i:/ is a much more tense sound than / /. The fact that English has these two highfront vowels, differentiated by muscle tension in the root of the tongue, sets it apartfrom Chinese and many languages of the world. Both /i:/ and / / can occur in initial,medial, and final position in words.Very little difficulty should be encountered by the Chinese learners in thepronunciation of /i:/, but / / is a problem sound. It is easy for the learners to detectthe difference in length. What counts here, however, is the difference in quality. It istherefore important to point out the fact that to pronounce a correct /, you need to1) lower you tongue a little bit from the position for /i:/, and2) make it a lax sound instead of a tense sound like /i:/.The importance of correct pronunciation of / lies in the fact that it is thesecond most frequent vowel in English./e/ & /e/ & / /e/ is also an English vowel with high frequency of occurrence. The tongue bodyis shifted forward in the mid-plane. / is produced by shifting the body of the tongueforward from its relaxed state, and lowering it from the position for /e/. It is the lowestof the front vowels. /e/ and / do not occur in final position in English words./e/ and / / are not really problem sounds for the Chinese learners, but many ofthem fail to make a clear distinction between the two in their speech. The difficulty is7that they have to make the clear distinction consistent./ / :/ & /:/ & / /:/ and / / are central vowels. /:/ is made with the tongue in the approximatemiddle of the mouth. It occurs only in stressed syllables. / / is also called a schwa. Itis made similarly to / :/, but with less tension. / / is the most frequently used vowelin English. Both /:/ and / may occur in all three word positions.Most learners do not have problems in the pronunciation of / :/ and /, still weneed to give special attention to the schwa. The problem with the schwa may notgenerally be in production, but in knowing when to use the sound. No other vowel,with the exception of the other reduced vowel, /, is as important to anunderstanding of the English sound system and the way it functions in unstressedsyllables.本单元介绍英语的前元音和中元音。发音时气流由肺部泄出，不受任何阻碍，气流输出过程畅通无阻不带任何摩擦，这样发出的音叫做元音。元音音素之所以彼此有别，是受到发音器官调节的结果。发音过程中发音器官采取某一固定位置直至发音结束的， 是单元音， 如/i:,u:/。 双元音又称 “滑音” ，即在发音过程中发音器官的位置或形状有所变化， 从一个单元音滑向另一个单元音，发/e/这一双元音就是从发/e/开始，朝/的方向滑动，构成/e/。英语的元音中，有 12 个音元音，8 个双元音。单元音的音质取决于以下三个因素：一是舌头在口腔中位置的高低，即舌头前、中、后哪一部分抬得最高；二是牙床张开的大小，即张口程度是合、半合、还是开；三是唇形，发音时唇形是扁平还是圆唇。在元音发音的过程中起关键作用的是舌头， 因此学习元音时就要重点学会正确调节舌位。元音的音素也正是根据发音时舌位的变化情况进行分类的。单元音可按发音时舌头前、中、后哪一部分抬得最高而分成三类：前元音，中元音，后元音。这一单元我们学习的是英语的前元音与中元音。我们先来看看英语前元音与中元音的舌位图（见课本 p50） 。图的左方为口腔的前部，右方为其后部。竖线把舌头分成前中后三个部分；横线表示牙床的开合程度， 图中的框框与圆形表示元音音素发音时舌头抬得最高的那一部分在口腔中的位置，同时框框中的元音为非圆唇音, 圆形中的元音为圆唇音。从图中可以看到，/i:/与/都是前元音,但是发/i:/时牙床近于全合；发/时，牙床近于全开。可见，发音时调节口的开张程度就产生的不同的前元音。试发以下元音/i:, , e, /。/i:/ /i:/ / /把这两个元音放在一起学是为了更好地进行比较。 /i:/的发音与汉语的 “衣”发音有点相似， 发音时牙床近于全合， 舌尖抵下齿， 舌前部抬得很高， 升向硬腭，双唇扁平。/i:/与汉语“衣”的发音不同之处在于：汉语“衣”在发音时舌前与硬腭之间的距离更窄一些，且有轻微的摩擦。大部分中国学生对发好/i:/这个音都有很大的把握。第二号元音 /I/的学习则给大家带来很大的挑战，不少人将/看作是/i:/的短元音：发音时舌位相同，只是将其发作短音。其实，/i:/与/的区别主要不在其长短，更重要的是质的不同，即发音时发音器官的位置8不同。从舌位图中我们看到：这两个音发音时有两个不同之处。首先是发 /时舌在口腔中的位置比发 /i:/时要低一些。也就是说 /i:/在发音时牙床近于全合，而/则属半合。其次，发/时，舌头抬高的最高点要比/i:/更靠后一些，因而口腔中形成的气流通道也更宽一些。此外，在发音时/i:/的双唇呈扁平状，口腔肌内紧张，而/的双唇形式居扁平与中常之间，口腔肌内较为放松。掌握好以上区别，对发好这两个音极为重要。/e/ /e/ / / /从舌位图我们可以看到：/e/与/ /也是前元音。/e/在发音时口的开张度居半合与半开之间，/ /在发音时，口张至近于全开。中国学生在学习这两个音时最常见的错误是用 一个半开元音代替/e/与/ /。也就是说，在发音时，应该发/e/的时候口张得太大，应该发/时口的开张度又嫌太合，/e/与/ /同时发作。对于这些学生来说，掌握好口的开张度是发好这两个音的关键。在学习/e/音时，还须注意的另外两点是：第一，莫将/e/发成中元音，例如，我们有时候听到一些人将 when 说成汉语的“问” ，问题就出在这里。第二，莫将/e/发成双元音，如将setting 说成*st。要解决这个问题主要是注意在发/e/的过程中，口的开张度与舌位要保持稳定，不能有变化。/:/ /:/ / /从舌位图中我们看到：这两个音在发音时采取的中立的位置，牙床半开合，舌的中部稍稍隆起，双唇偏平或中常，就可以发出/:/与/。在学习这两个音时，需要注意：一、 /:/只出现在重读音节中而/则只出现在非重读音节里，亦被称作“非重读央元音” 。二、/:/的发音与/不完全相同:/:/ 并不是/的单纯延长, 发/:/时口形得比/小，舌位也略高于发/时; 同时发/:/ 时双唇偏平，肌肉紧张，而发/时双唇中常、肌肉松弛。三、/是英语元音中出现频率最高的，也是所有英语音素中出现频率最高的音素。学习中的难点是掌握什么时候应该发这个音。Back VowelsBack VowelsPurpose:Purpose:The students will learnthe Back VowelsBack Vowels in English.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition for Back Vowels Back Vowels;2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, compare them withother vowels;3.Practice imitate the sounds and do practice.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1.Stimulating: Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students knowabout what they are required to learn. Make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire tofind out theanswers themselves.2.Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing the9typical pronunciation in English.3.Ask the students to listen to the tapes to make a good discrimination of the soundsin focus.4.Have the students imitate the sound in focus.5.Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.6.Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the sounds in focus correct in their pronunciation.7.Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the sounds in focus in speech.8.Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.9.Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.10.Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.11.Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during thenext session.Back VowelsBack VowelsIn this unit, we will learn the back vowels in English.There are six back vowels in English. The back vowels are produced by shiftingthe body of the tongue back from its central position. The tip of the tongue remains atthe level of the lower teeth. The front and back vowels have several features incommon as well as some differences. Unlike the front vowels that are made with afairly neutral lip posture, four of the back vowels are rounded. The back vowels mayalso be subdivided into those that are high (/u:/ and /), mid (/:/ and / /), and low(/:/ and /). The following is the description of the six English back vowels.U:/u:/ and /u:/ and / /u:/ and / are both high, back, rounded vowels. The /u:/ marks the highestboundary for the back vowels, as /i:/ does for the front vowels. Therefore, the tongue10is retracted from its rest position and raised toward the soft palate. This vowel is quitecommon in the languages of the world and appears without problem in most Chineselearners. Along with /u:/, / completes the vowels in the high back space on thevowels chart. Its corresponding front vowel is /. When making the sound, thetongue is retracted as for /u:/ but not elevated to the same extent. In addition, the / /vowel is not made with as much tension in the root of the tongue as /u:/. The sametense/lax contrast is also seen for /i:/ and /. This sound is not found very frequentlyas a phoneme in the languages of the world, certainly not in Chinese Putonghua. InEnglish, it is not very common despite the fact that it appears in some frequently usedwords, such as should, good, and book. /u:/ occurs at all the three positions of a wordwhile / occurs only in the middle position of a word, like book and hook. To ensurecorrect pronunciation, it is important to make the following distinction between /u:/and /:1. /u:/ is the highest back vowel, so the raised part of the tongue for /u:/ is higher thanthat for /;2. the part of the tongue raised for / is not as back as that for /u:/;3. /u:/ has quite strong lip rounding while the lips are only slightly rounded for /./ /:/ & /:/ & / / /:/ is a mid-back vowel. For its production, the tongue is retracted and almostflat in the mouth. The vowel is almost fully back and has quite strong lip-rounding. / / is a low vowel. The lips are slightly rounded. / / is a difficult vowel for the Chineselearners. Many of them use a shortened version of / :/ as its substitution. To ensurecorrect pronunciation, it is important to make the following distinction between thesetwo vowels:1. / / is a low vowel while /:/ is a mid vowel, so the mouth is more open for / /,2. /:/ has quite strong lip rounding while the lips are only slightly rounded for / /./ / :/ & /:/ & / /The /:/ is made by lowering and flattening the tongue in the oral cavity. It is alow vowel, but not as back as other back vowels in English. / is quite differentfrom other vowels in this group in that it is more like a central vowel than a backvowel (see the vowel chart). / / is made with the tongue in the approximate middleof the mouth, perhaps shifted back slightly. It is lower than the other central vowels/ :/ and /. The lip position is neutral. It is important for the learners to make a cleardistinction between /:/ and / in their pronunciation.元音元音: : 后元音后元音11在这个单元里， 我们将学习英语的后元音。 英语有六个后元音。 发后元音时，舌身从中间位置向后移动，舌尖与下齿保持同一水平。英语的前元音在发音时，唇形是扁平的。后元音中则有四个圆唇音。我们可以根据其口的开张程度，由近乎全合到近乎全开，逐步张开，舌位依次降低发出以下后元音：/u:, , :, /。我们来看后元音的舌位图。英语的后元音中有四个圆唇音，两个非圆唇音。从发音时口的开张程度看， / u: /近乎全合； / /属半合； / : /在发音时牙床半开；/ /在发音时牙床张开；/ /近乎全开；/:/也近乎全开；/ /与/ :/在口的开张度上相似，但/ /是圆唇音，/ :/是非圆唇音；/ :/的舌位要比/ /稍前一些。现在来看看这些音的具体发音。/ u: / u: / / / / u: /和/都是高元音、后元音、圆唇元音。/ u: /在英语后元音中，舌位是最高的。就如/ i: /在前元音中舌位最高一样。发此音时，舌头后缩，并向软腭隆起。这个音在当今世界的许多语言中都很常见，对大多数中国学习者来说，发此音并没有多大问题。/在发音时与/u:/一样，舌头后缩，但后度不及 /u:/，舌面隆起但程度不及/u:/。另外，发/音时，肌肉的紧张程度不及/u:/。学习/ u: /和/的发音时，要特别注意以下几点：1、/ u: /是舌位最高的后元音，因此舌头隆得比/音高。2、发/ u: /音时，舌头隆起部位比/更接近舌根。3、发/ u: /音时，双唇呈滚圆形；发/音时，双唇呈微圆形。4、发/ u: /音时，肌肉紧张度高而发/时，肌肉轻为松驰。/ / : /: / / / / : /在发音时，舌头后缩牙床半开，双唇呈滚圆形。/ /在发音时舌面尽量压低和往后靠，牙床近乎全开，呈微圆形。/ /对中国学生来说是一个较难发好的音，许多人就用/ : /的短音来代替。为确保发音准确，掌握这两个元音以下的区别尤为重要：1、/ /在发音时口的开张度大于/ : /，牙床近乎全开。2、发/ : /音时，双唇呈滚圆形；发/ /音时，双唇呈微圆形。/ / : /: / / / /发/ : /音时，口要尽量张大，牙床全开，双唇中常，舌尖离开下齿，舌位放到最低点，同时向后缩，但后度不及/ /。/不同于其它后元音。与其说它是后元音，还不如说它是中元音。发/音时，舌头在口腔里平放着，舌面中部略抬起，牙床半开，舌位比中元音/ : /要低，双唇中常，肌肉松驰。练习这两个音的时候，要特别注意它们之间的不同：1、/ : /的舌位比/后；2、/ : /音口的开张度比/大。在练习/ : /音时还要注意区分/ : /与/ /。12这两个音的牙床开张程度是相似的，都属近乎全开，所不同的：一是/ /的舌位更后一些；二是/ /是圆唇音而/ : /是非圆唇音；三是一般说来在相同的语音环境中/:/的音长于/ /。Unit 3Unit 3DiphthongsDiphthongsPurpose:Purpose:The students will learntheVowels: Diphthongs in English.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition forVowels: Diphthongs;2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, compare them withother vowels;3.Practice imitate the sounds and do practice.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1.Stimulating: Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students knowabout what they are required to learn. Make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire tofind out theanswers themselves.2.Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing thetypical pronunciation in English.3.Ask the students to listen to the tapes to make a good discrimination of the soundsin focus.4.Have the students imitate the sound in focus.5.Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.6.Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the sounds in focus correct in their pronunciation.7.Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the sounds in focus in speech.8.Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.9.Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.10.Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.11.Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during thenext session.Vowels: DiphthongsVowels: DiphthongsIn this unit, we will learn the diphthongs in English.There are eight diphthongs in English. Diphthongs are sounds which consist of a13movement of glide from one vowel toanother. Perhaps the most important thing toremember about all the diphthongs is that the first part is much longer and strongerthan the second part. Take /a/ as an example. Most of this diphthong consists of thea vowel, and only in about the last quarter of the diphthong doesthe glide to begin. As the glide to happens, the loudness of the sound decreases. As a result,the part is shorter and quieter. The English diphthongs can be shown in thefollowing diagram (P69):Diphthongcentringclosingending in ending in ending in eea aThe following is a description of the eight English diphthongs (70)./ /e e/ / e / / are called centring diphthongs because they all glide towards the (schwa) vowel, as the symbols indicate. The starting point for / is a littlecloser than in bit, bin. /e/ begins with the similar vowel sound as the e of get,men. / has a starting point slightly closer than in put, pull./ e/ ea a / /e/, /a/ and / the three diphthongs that glide towards . /e/ beginswith the same vowel sound as the e ofget, men. /a/ begins with an open vowelwhich is between front and back; it is quite similar to the in words like cut, bun.The starting point of / is a little more open than : in ought, born. The closingdiphthongs have the characteristic that they all end with a glide towards a closervowel. Because the second part of the diphthong is weak, they often do not reach aposition that could be called close. The important thing is that a glide from a relativelymore open towards a relatively more close vowel is produced./ /a a/ / /a/ are the two diphthongs that end with a glide towards . So as thetongue moves closer to the roof of the mouth there is at the same time a roundingmovement of the lips. This movement is not a large one, again becausethe secondpart of the diphthong is weak. The vowel position for the beginning of / is thesame as for the schwa vowel . The lips may be slightly rounded in anticipation14of the glide towards , for which there is quite a noticeable lip-rounding. /a/begins with a vowel similar to : but a little more front. There is slight lip-roundingduring the glide towards .Pronunciation difficulties with the diphthongsPronunciation difficulties with the diphthongsMost Chinese EFL learners have little problem with most of the diphthongs, butthe following two are particularly important to ensure correct pronunciation.1.Make sure that you have a correct starting point. For example, / /start with an which is neither i: nor . It is a sound which is alittle bit closer than / in big .2.Make sure that the diphthongs end with a glide. One of theproblems with some of the learners is the production of pure vowelswhere a diphthong should be pronounced. For example, some learnersfind it difficult to make a clear distinction between /e/ and /e/.元音元音: : 双元音双元音本单元介绍的是英语的双元音。双元音与单元音不同之处在于：单元音在发音时发音器官自始至终保持某一固定位置， 如/e/, /e/在发音时牙床的开张度居半合与半开之间， 发音过程中舌位与唇型一直保持同样的位置不变,直至发音结束。双元音又称“滑音” ，即在发音过程中发音器官的位置或形状有所变化，从一个单元音滑向另一个单元音，如 /e/, 发/e/这一双元音就是从发/e/开始，朝/的方向滑动，构成/e/。发双元音时要注意两个问题：一是双元音必须一口气完成，如果中断，就会形成两个音素而不再是一个双元音了, 如将/e/发成:/e/ /。二是要注意:英语双元音的两个成分中，位于前面的音发音通常清晰响亮，位于后面的则较轻 ,甚至有点模糊， 英语的双元音的发音就是这样从第一个成分开始然后滑向第二个成分. 如/e/.英语有 8 个双元音。根据发音特点，我们可以将他们分为三组：双元音中向双元音合口双元音以/结尾以/结尾以/结尾15eeaa/ /e/ /在发音时从各自的起点朝着中元音的方向移动,故称中向双元音, /e/ /a/ / / /a/这五个音在发音过程中,口形从开到合, 因此被称作合口双元音。请看双元音的发音舌位图(见课本 P70)。/ /e/ /是中向双元音. /在发音时舌位从滑向, 双唇扁平，牙床从半合到半开。要注意,这个双元音的第一个成分是而不是i:/ /./e/的第一个成分是一个半开前元音,发音时双唇保持扁平： /e/. /发音的起点是, 舌头位置高，圆唇. 在发音过程中，舌头朝的方向移动，双唇往两边拉开: /。/e/ /a/ / / /a/是合口双元音, 其中/e/ /a/ /是朝着的方向移动,而/ /a/则是朝着的方向移动。/e/在发音时舌头位置以e为起点，朝着的方向移动。注意：是“朝着的方向移动”,但不是非达到不可. 牙床开始时半开，逐渐收拢。/a/发音起点为前元音a, 舌位低,牙床全开，双唇中常,发音时朝着的方向移动,即牙床逐渐收拢，双唇往两边拉开： /的发音起点为后元音,牙床近乎全开，双唇稍圆,然后舌头朝着的方向移动,即牙床逐渐闭合,双唇从圆到扁平：/./ /a是朝着的方向移动的合口双元音. /的发音以中元音作为起点，朝后元音的方向移动，唇形从中常到略圆 ,牙床渐合。总的说来，/音在发音时滑动的幅度并不大: /。 /a/的发音以a作为起点，朝后元音的方向移动， 此处的a音稍后于/a/的起点， 准确地说， 它位于/a/的起点和之间。发音时牙床全开，双唇中常,随后舌位朝的方向滑动,牙床逐渐收拢，双唇呈圆状，从a到滑动幅度较大，牙床从开到合: /a/.我国学生在学习英语双元音时主要应注意以下两点：1. 确保所发双元音的起点准确无误. 以/为例, 该音的起点更接近而非i:, 发音时，勿将其发得太长、 太紧: /. 又如/, 该音的起点为而非u: /.2. 确保发音过程中的“滑动 ”,缺了“滑动”则不成其为双元音了。以 /e/为例,16如果缺少了发音过程的滑动, /e/就成了/e/, pain 与 pen 就没什么区别了。掌握好以上发音要领，我们就能学好英语的双元音。17Unit 4Unit 4Rules of Reading of English Vowel LettersRules of Reading of English Vowel LettersPurpose:Purpose:The students will learnthe Stressed Syllables & Unstressed SyllablesStressed Syllables & Unstressed Syllables in English.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition for StressedStressed SyllablesSyllables & UnstressedUnstressedSyllables.Syllables. It is a revision and therefore, easy for most of the students;2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, compare stressed andunstressed syllables in words and sentences;3.Practice imitate the stress patterns and do practice.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1.Stimulating: Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students knowabout what they are required to learn. Make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire tofind out theanswers themselves.2.Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing thetypical pronunciation in English.3.Ask the students to listen to the tapes to make a good discrimination of the stressin focus.4.Have the students imitate the stress patterns in focus.5.Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.6.Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the stress correct in their pronunciation.7.Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the stress in speech.8.Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.9.Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.10.Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.11.Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during thenext session.In this unit, we will learn more about stressed syllables & unstressed syllables.We now have a general view of the sounds in English. We know how importantcorrect pronunciation is to successful communication. We also learned a little aboutthe fact that we need to master other important aspects of the spoken English in orderto achieve successful communication. Stress and rhythm are two essential elements.Every time you dance, sing, or clap your hands you emphasize or stress particular18beats or sounds. In speech, stress may be defined as the degree of intensity ofloudness placed on a sound; that is, the amount of force one puts on a syllable or wordto give it importance. Stress is such an important feature of spoke English that itdetermines not only the rhythmic flow of words, but also the quality of the vowels.Correct word and sentence stress in spoken English can mean the difference betweengood communication and no communication at all.Three types of stress can be found in English: primary, secondary, and zero. Theterm primary stress refers to the strong emphasis a speaker puts on the most importantsyllable of a particular word. Secondary stress refers to a less strong emphasis on thenext most important syllable. Zero stress refers to any syllable that receives no stress,and it is also called unstressed syllable. In other words, an unstressed syllable receivesno intensity or loudness at all. The frequent occurrence of unstressed syllable is one ofthe fundamental characteristics of spoken English, and the one that most distinguishesEnglish from Chinese.A stressed syllable may contain any one of the vowel sounds except the schwa,but any vowel except the diphthongs /a/ and / can be reduced to / or /. Inspoken English, there are many more unstressed syllables than there are stressedsyllables. This explains why the two vowels, / and /, are the most frequentlyused vowel sounds in spoken English.重读音节和非重读音节重读音节和非重读音节在前面几个单元中，我们学习了英语的 44 个音素。我们非常清楚，正确的发音是口头交际成功的重要因素。与此同时，我们也非常清楚地认识到，仅有正确的发音还不够，当音素相连形成音节，进而形成单词与语句的时候，我们需要用英语所特有的重音模式和节奏规律将这些音素与音节说出来， 才能表达出语句的含义。这一单元我们学习的是英语的重音: 英语单词和句子中的重读音节与非重读音节。我们在听英语语句的时候，有一些单词或音节听起来比其周围的单词或音节要响亮些，这就是我们通常说的重读。换句话说，重音是指一个词或音节的发音比周围的词或音节的发音费的劲要大。一般说来，重读的单词或音节一般音调较高，延续时间较长，当然，指的是元音较长。总之，音节与音节之间的区别，最根本的是在于重读和非重读之间的区别。重音是英语口语的一个重要特点，每个单词都有其固定的重音模式，此外，重音还具有两大语义功能。一是我们可以通过重音区别两个相似的单词： import（名词） import（动词） 。 The car is a foreignimport.这部车是进口货。 We import all our coffee. 我们所有的咖啡都是进口的。二是我们可以通过重音强调一个音节或单词。I said in the desk, not on the desk.我是说在书桌里面而不是在桌面上。 掌握英语的重音规律可以使语言的表达准确到位，同时语句重音模式也是话语节奏的基础。英语的重音可分为三个级别：主重音、次重音与零重音。主重音就是我们通常说的重音； 零重音就是我们通常指的非重读音节。次重音当然指的就是居于两者之间，既不是重读音节，又有别于非重读音节。举个例子：在一些多音节单词中，我们常常可以听到次重音，如，满足（动词）satisfy （名词） satisfaction。句子中也存在次重音。如果将 I was working hardyesterday. 这句话读成：19I was workinghard yesterday. 句中的最后一个单词 yesterday 失去了句子重音，但是，该单词所含的三个音节中，第一个音节仍然显得比其他两个音节重一些，因此，可以称其为次重音。在学习英语的重音规律时 , 一是要清楚在一连串的音节中哪些是重读音节 ,哪些是非重读音节，单词的重音错位可能造成对词义的误解 ,也可能使人完全听不懂你在说什么。二是要注意将非重读音节读成真正的“零重读 ” , 即非重读音节听起来要轻, 要弱. 我们还将注意的是，在自然流利的英语口语中，非重读音节的数目通常大于重读音节数,因此，自如地掌握英语的重音对提高口语的流利程度大有帮助。此外，由于重音的转移可能使元音的读音发生一些变化，我们还应该注意到这样一个事实：重读音节中所含的元音可以是除央元音/以外的任何一个元音, 但是，除了/ /a/之外，任何一个元音都可以因为失去重音而被弱化为/或/. 正因为如此，这两个元音就成了在英语的所有音素中出现频率最高的音素.20Unit 5Unit 5The ConsonantsThe ConsonantsPurpose:Purpose:The students will learnthe stop consonants in English.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition for “stops”;2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, compare stops andother consonants;3.Practice imitate the sounds and do practice.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1.Stimulating: Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students knowabout what they are required to learn. Make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire tofind out theanswers themselves.2.Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing thetypical pronunciation in English.3.Ask the students to listen to the tapes to make a good discrimination of the soundsin focus.4.Have the students imitate the sound in focus.5.Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.6. Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the sounds in focus correct in their pronunciation.7.Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the sounds in focus in speech.8. Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.9. Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.10. Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.11. Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during the nextsession.Consonants: StopsConsonants: StopsIn this unit, we will learn the stop consonants in English.The stop consonants are made by completely stopping the airflow at some pointin the mouth and then, for most productions, releasing it into the sound that follows.There are six stops in English: /p/ and /b/ are formed by the lips, /t/ and /d/ are madeon the gum ridge behind the upper teeth, and /k/ and / occur at the back of themouth where the tongue makes a weal with the soft palate. /p/, /t/, /k/ are voicelessstops as they are not accompanied by vibration from the larynx, while /b/, /d/, / are21the voiced stops. These stops are among the most frequent sounds in English and havefairly consistent spellings./p/ and /b/p/ and /b/You pronounce the /p/ and /b/ by stopping the airstream with you lips, building uppressure and suddenly releasing the air. They can be used at the beginning, middle andend of words. The following are some of the allophonic variations of /p/ and /b/.Allophonic variations of /p/:Allophonic variations of /p/:AllophoneOccurrenceExamplepp-p p:pAspirated release in initial word and stressed positionspoketop tenspotStop Pete.Stop him.Unreleased in word final positionUnaspirated release in clusters, esp. after /s/Lengthening, when an arresting /p/ is followedby a releasing /p/Nasal release, before a syllabic nasalAllophonic variations of /b/:Allophonic variations of /b/:AllophoneOccurrenceb-Unreleased in word final positionb:lengthened when an arresting /b/ is followedby a releasing /b/bNasal resonance, before a syllabic nasalExamplerobRob Bob.Rob him./t/ and /d/t/ and /d/The /t/ sound is one of the most frequent in English and occur in all threepositions at the word level. It has many variations and is a very interesting andproductive sound in the language. /d/ is not as frequent in English nor does it have thenumber of varieties that /t/ has. You pronounce them by blocking the airstream withthe tongue and upper gum ridge, building up air pressure and suddenly releasing it.The following are some of the allophonic variations of /t/ and /d/:Allophonic variations of /t/:Allophonic variations of /t/:AllophoneOccurrenceExample22tt-t ttt:Aspirated release in word initial and stressed positionstapeUnreleased in word final positionUnaspirated release in consonant cluster, esp. with /s/Dentalized before /coatstopeighthNasal release, before a syllabic nasalFlapped, intervocalicallybuttonletterbuttonlet TimtrainGlottal stop, before syllabic n or lLengthening, when an arresting /t/ is followedby a releasing /t/Affrication of initial position /tr/trAllophonic variations of /d/:Allophonic variations of /d/:AllophoneOccurrencedd-Exampledadpadlockbreadn butterladderwidthDentalized before an interdentalUnreleased in word final positionBilateral release with /l/ dl d Nasal release, before a syllabic nasalFlapped, intervocalicallyd:Lengthening, when an arresting /d/ is followedby a releasing /d/sad Daved3rAffrication of initial position /dr/drain/k/ and /k/ and / /You produce /k/ and / by blocking the breath-stream with the back of thetongue and soft palate, building up the pressure, and suddenly releasing it. Thehard-c, as in cat, and the letter k account for most of the spellings of /k/, but thereis also a silent-k in words such as know and knight. The spelling of / is consistentin English, although there is a silent version in words such as gnash and gnat. Both /k/and / can occur at the beginning, middle, and end of words in English. Thefollowing are some of the allophonic variations of /k/ and /:23Allophonic variations of /k/:Allophonic variations of /k/:AllophoneOccurrencekk-kk:kExampleAspirated release in word initial and stressed positionskeeptakeskytake KimbeaconclockkeenbaconquarterUnreleased in word final positionUnaspirated release in consonant cluster, esp. with /s/Lengthening, when an arresting /k/ is followedby a releasing /k/Nasal release, before a syllabic nasalBilateral release with /l/ kl c or kAssimilated to a front soundGlottal stop, before syllabic nkRounded, before a rounded soundAllophonic variations of /Allophonic variations of /: /:AllophoneOccurrence-:ExampleflagUnreleased in word final position and some clustersLengthening, when an arresting / is followedby a releasing /big grapesgladl Bilateral release before /l/Nasal release, before a syllabic nasalpig and goatgeesegoose or Assimilated to a fronted soundRounded, before a rounded soundPronunciation difficultiesPronunciation difficultiesThe English stops do not generally cause an intelligibility problem among theChinese EFL learners but some learners may devoice finalposition voiced stops so24that tab may be pronounced as tap, code as coat and /li:/ as /li:k/. Lengthening thevowel before the voiced stops will aid in the perception of a voiced final stop. /i:/ inneed, for example, is usually a little bit longer than /i:/ in neat when they are insimilar phonetic contexts. Another difficulty with the Chinese EFL learners is thepronunciation of the stops in consonant clusters. Drill the sounds in all positions,paying close attention to the strength of production and the degree of voicing.辅音辅音: : 塞音塞音在这一单元，我们将学习英语的爆破音，也叫塞音。英语的爆破音共有三对，发音方法是：使气流在口腔某处成阻，再让气流冲决阻碍，爆破生音，因此叫爆破音。英语的六个爆破音中： /p/和/b/的发音部位是双唇；/t/和/d/的发音部位是舌尖和齿龈；/k/和/发音时，则是用舌后部触软腭形成阻塞而爆破生音。其中/p/，/t/和/k/是清辅音，因为发这三个音时声带无需振动。相反的，/b/，/d/和/ /在发音时，声带振动，是浊辅音。/p/p/和和/b/b/当你发/p/和/b/两音时，双唇合拢而形成阻塞，然后让气流冲决阻碍，爆破生音。这两个音可出现在词首、词中和词尾三个部位， /p/和/b/在不同的语音环境中有不同的变体：/p/的音位变体/p/在词首且在重读音节中时，是送气音如 poke；当处于词尾时，可能失去爆破，如 top tea；在/s/后形成辅音连缀时，/p/在发音时不送气，如 spot；当两个/p/相邻时，无需产生两次爆破，而只是延长发音的时间，如 stop Pete；当/p/后紧跟着的是鼻音时，此时爆破不在口腔，而在鼻腔，就是我们通常说的“鼻腔爆破” ，如 Stop him；/b/的音位变体：当处于词尾时，不完全爆破，如 rob the man；当两个b相邻时，无需产生爆破，只是延长发音时间，如 rob Bob；/b/在鼻音前时，爆破不在口腔，而在鼻腔，如 rob him；/t/t/和和/d/d/t/和/d/是齿龈爆破音. 发这两个音时，用舌尖抵齿龈成阻，让气流爆发而出。/t/的音位变体/t/在词首且在重读音节中时，是送气音如 tape；当处于词尾时，可能失去爆破，如 sit still；在/s/后形成辅音连缀时，/t/在发音时不送气，如 stop；当处于/ /之前时，呈齿音化发音，如 eighth；当/t/后紧跟着的是鼻音时，此时爆破不在口腔，而在鼻腔，就是我们通常说的“鼻腔爆破” ，如 button；当处于两个元音之间时，/t/听起来近似闪音，如 letter；当/t/位于成音节/n/或/l/前时，便成了声门爆破音，如 little；当两个/t/相邻时，无需产生两次爆破，而只是延长发音的时间，如 let Tim;当处于辅音组合/tr/中时，发音兼具爆破与摩擦的特征，如 train；25/d/的音位变体：当处于齿间音（如/ /）之前时，呈齿音化发音，如 width；当处于词尾时，不完全爆破，如 Dad said so.当与/l/组合时，成为舌侧爆破音，如 padlook；/d/在鼻音前时，爆破不在口腔，而在鼻腔，如 breadn butter;当两个/b/相邻时，无需产生爆破，只是延长发音时间，如 sad Dave当处于辅音组合/dr/之中时，发音兼具爆破和摩擦的特征，如 drain。/k/k/和和/ / /发/k/和/两音时，用舌根顶住软腭堵住气流的出路，然后舌根猛地离开软腭使气流爆发而出。/k/是清辅音，/是浊辅音。/k/的音位变体/k/位于词首，且在重读音节中时，是送气音，如 keep；当处于词尾时，可能失去爆破，如 take three；在/s/后形成辅音连缀时，/k/在发音时不送气，如 sky当两个/k/相邻时，无需产生两次爆破，而只是延长发音的时间，如 take Kim;当/k/后紧跟着的是鼻音时，此时爆破不在口腔，而在鼻腔，就是我们通常说的“鼻腔爆破” ，如 beacon;当与/l/音组合时，成为舌侧爆破音，如 clock；后跟前元音时，/k/的发音部位前移，如 keen；位于成音节/n/时，便成了声门爆破，如 bacon；位于圆唇音之前时，发音时亦呈圆唇，如 quarter./的音位变体当处于词尾时，不完全爆破，如 lag behind;当两个/相邻时，无需产生爆破，只是延长发音时间，如 big grapes当与/l/组合时，与成为舌侧爆破音，如 glad；/在鼻音前时，爆破不在口腔，而在鼻腔，如 pig and goat;后跟前元音时，发音部位前移，如 geese;位于圆唇音之前时，发音时亦呈圆唇，如 goose.发音难点解析发音难点解析中国学生在学习英语爆破音时要注意的问题主要有以下两点：一、爆破音的学习，就发音部位来说，并不难掌握：英语的爆破音与汉语的声母（b，p，d，t，k，g）极为相近。所不同之处主要体现在发音方法上。总的说来， 英语的三对爆破音的区别特征是清辅音和浊辅音；而区别汉语三对声母的特征则是送气音与非送气音。当英语的爆破音位于词首时，清辅音的送气比汉语的对应音更为有力；浊辅音一般只有轻微的声带振动。当英语的爆破音位于词尾时，爆破可能非常地轻微，此时，帮助辨别清浊辅音的一个重要特征就是位于爆破音前的元音的长度。例如，在相似的语音环境中，need 中的/i:/通常比 neat中的/i:/稍长一些。 另外， 当浊辅音位于两个元音之间时， 声带振动则是必须的。二、在学习中要注意的另一个问题是这三对爆破音的音位变体。这些音位变体的主要形式我们已经接触过。例如，什么时侯爆破音会失去爆破：take them；鼻腔爆破音应怎么发：garden；旁流爆破音应怎么发：people；在辅音连缀中，当/p t k/出现在/s/之后， “送气”会减弱，如 speak, sky, star。掌握了以上发音方法，我们就能正确地发好英语的爆破音了。掌握了以上发音方法，我们就能正确地发好英语的爆破音了。26Consonants: Fricatives and AffricatesConsonants: Fricatives and AffricatesPurpose:Purpose:The students will learnthe consonants: “fricatives” and “affricates” in English.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition for “fricatives” and “affricates”;2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, compare them withother consonants;3.Practice imitate the sounds and do practice.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1.Stimulating: Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students knowabout what they are required to learn. Make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire tofind out theanswers themselves.2.Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing thetypical pronunciation in English.3.Ask the students to listen to the tapes to make a good discrimination of the soundsin focus.4.Have the students imitate the sound in focus.5.Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.6.Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the sounds in focus correct in their pronunciation.7.Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the sounds in focus in speech.6. Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.7. Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.8.Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.9.Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during the nextsession.Consonants: Fricatives and AffricatesConsonants: Fricatives and AffricatesIn this unit, we are going to learn two groups of consonants: fricatives andaffricates. At the same time, we are going to learn how to describe an object and tolearn how to talk about ones job with appropriate pronunciation and intonation inEnglish.IntroductionIntroductionWhat do you know about fricatives and affricates in English?27Well, if the stops completely block the airstream for a time in the pronunciation,the fricatives only partially block it, thus causing the friction-like noise characteristicof these sounds. There are nine fricative consonants, forming the largest set ofconsonants in English./t/ and /d/ are affricate sounds, which you produce by blocking off thebreath-stream between the tongue and gum ridge, for a stop and a fricative. The termaffricate means blend, in this case, consisting of a stop and a fricative. /t/ and/d/are the two English affricates and they differ primarily in terms of voicing./f/ and /v/f/ and /v/f/ and /v/ are labio-dental sounds. /f/ is voiceless and /v/ is voiced. They arefricative sounds that you produce by forcing the breathstream between you upperteeth and lower lip. They can be used at the beginning, middle and end of words./f/ is not a problem sound for most of the students but /v/ may sometimes causeproblems. It may substitute for another bilabial such as /w/, or a bilabial /b/ may besubstituted for /v/. There is also a tendency to devoice /v/, especially at the ends ofwords./ / and / and / / and / are interdental sounds. They are fricatives that you produce bysqueezing the breathstream between your tongue and teeth. / / / is voiceless and / / / isvoiced. These sounds tend to appear relatively late in the speech of children and causeconsiderable stress for both native and non-native speakers of English. Although thespelling seems to be highly consistent in English, the fact is that the th combinationis used for both / / and / /. They can be used at the beginning, middle and end ofwords.The problem with / / / are many and varied. A dentalized t occurs when there isinsufficient breath support. With a /f/ or /s/ substitution, the problem is not withairflow but with placement. This sound will require considerable effort to stabilize inall contexts. The problem with / / / is quite similar. With insufficient airflow, adentalized d will occur. Placement difficulties result in a /v/ or /z/ substitution.Devoicing may also be a common problem since English orthography uses the lettersth for both / and /. The following steps are useful in the pronunciation drill forthese two consonants:1. Look in a mirror and say the sound.2. Make sure you can see the edge of your tongue protruding between yourteeth. Say again.3. Say the sound over and over again. Dont move your tongue betweensounds.Try the following: thin thanks thoughtThe same method can be applied to the practice of sound.28/s/ and /z/s/ and /z/s/ and /z/ are alveolar sounds. They are fricatives that you produce by forcing airbetween your tongue and the upper or lower front teeth. /s/ is voiceless and /z/ isvoiced. /s/ is one of the most useful sounds in English because it has an importantgrammatical function in forming possessives (Kates), third person singular, presenttense verbs (sits), and plurals (seats). Although /z/ is not as frequent in English speechas /s/, it performs similar grammatical functions in marking possessive (Susans), thirdperson singular, present tense verbs (runs), and plurals (dogs). Both /s/ and /z/ havebeen ranked as the most troublesome sounds in English, but it is rarely a seriousproblem for the Chinese EFL learners once their grammatical roles are mastered.They can be used at the beginning, middle and end of words.With /s/ and /z/, the main problem comes from the omissions, which may resultfrom grammatical deficiencies (plural, possessive, and so on) or from a failure topronounce the ends of words. The devoicing of final position /z/ may be helped bylengthening the preceding vowel. In the word prize, for example, many speakers ofEnglish devoice the final /z/ but lengthen the diphthong./ / and / and / / and / are lingua-palatal fricatives. You produce them very much like the /s/and /z/, except the tongue is farther back and the lips are rounded. / / / is voiceless and/ / / is voiced. / / / is not a particularly common sound in English or the languages ofthe world, but can be learned quite easily. / / / is the least frequent of the consonants inEnglish and is not common in the worlds language. / / / can be used in initial, medial,and final positions in words, but / / / is not found in word-initial position in Englishwords.With / and /, lip rounding is very important. For example, you can get/ / /by making /s/ first, then move the tongue body a little backward, then say it againwith rounded lips./h/h/h/ is a voiceless glottal fricative. It is simply a stream of air from the larynxdirected through the open mouth. It is not found in word-final position in Englishwords./h/ is not generally a problem sound, but some learners may use a voiceless velarfricative , as a substitution, which sounds more like a Chinese (h) in thepronunciation of 喝 (h) meaning to drink./t /t/ and /d/ and /d/ / /t/ and /d/ are affricate sounds, which you produce by blocking off thebreath-stream between the tongue and gum ridge, for a stop and a fricative. The termaffricate means blend, in this case, consisting of a stop and a fricative. The / /t/ is ablend combined of t and : it starts out as a t stop and then the tongue movesinto the position for . The /d/ is a blend of d and : it starts out as a d and29then the tongue moves into the usual position for . Both / /t/ and /d/ can occur ininitial, medial, and final positions in words./ /t/ and /d/ are fairly easy to perceive at normal conversational levels. Theoverall strength of production is important for / /t/ because weakening leads to a substitution. /d/ is less tense than / /t/, but it is still made with considerable strength.Weakening may lead to a substitution. Lip rounding will help to stabilize thesound.辅音辅音 : : 摩擦音和破擦音摩擦音和破擦音本单元我们将学习两类辅音：摩擦音和破擦音。如果说爆破音是让气流成阻，那么摩擦音就是部分地阻塞气流，发音时气流可以持续通过口腔形成缝隙的部位，伴随而来的是一种轻微的摩擦声。摩擦音是英语辅音中数量最多的一类音，包括/f/ /v/ / / /s/ /z/ / / /h/t/ /d/./t/和/d/是破擦音。发音时，舌尖抵住上齿龈后部，所产生的音既含 /t/与/d/的爆破，又含/与/的摩擦。 “破擦音”这个词本身暗含“混合”之意，即由爆破音和摩擦音组成。/t/是清辅音, /d/是浊辅音。/ f / f / v / v / f /和/ v /是唇齿音。前者是清辅音，后者是浊辅音。发音时，上齿紧挨下唇，然后将气流向外挤出。对于大多数中国学生来说，发好/ f /不成问题，/ v /则不然。有些人都把/ v /发成双唇音/ w/或/ b /。此外，人们的发音中还出现将/ v /清音化的趋势，即用/ f /代替/ v /，特别是/ v /在词尾的时候。/ / / / / / 和 /是齿间音。发音时，舌尖抵及上齿内侧，或置于上下齿之间，舌身平放口中，气流从舌尖与上下齿之间形成的缝隙中挤出，摩擦生音。 /是清辅音，/是浊辅音。人们发/ /时，常常出现一些问题，例如，气流不足便导致齿化音/ t /的出现；发音部位出错便导致/ f /或/s/出现。/也面临着同样的问题，如气流不足，便发出齿化音/ d /；发音部位有误，便发成/ v /或/z/。由于字母组合 th 既能发成/也能发成/，人们就常常用/代替/。发音练习时可采取几个步骤：对着镜子，发/确信你能看到舌边缘蠕动在上、下齿间。再发一次/一遍一遍地念/，记住:不要移动舌头的位置。试着做下面的发音训练：/ / / thin/ / / thanks/ / / thought可以用同样的方法进行/的发音训练。/s/s/z/z/s/和/z/是齿龈音。发音时，舌尖抵上齿龈，气流从舌前端与齿龈间挤出，产生磨擦。/s/是清辅音，/z/是浊辅音。/s/在英语中出现频率很高，因为它可以帮助构成所有格（如Kates）, 主语为第三人称单数的动词现在时（如takes）和名词30复数（如 seats） 。/z/的使用率远不及/s/，但它在构成所有格（如 Susans） ，主语为第三人称单数的动词的现在时（runs）和名词复数(dogs)时，也发挥了同样重要的语法功能。人们普遍认为/s/和/z/是英语中最令人头痛的音，然而对于我国学生来说，一旦掌握它们的语法作用，其他问题都迎刃而解了。/s/和/z/的问题源自省音。这是由语法成份残缺（如复数、所有格） ，或没有将词尾的音发出等造成的。/z/在词尾时， 人们有时只是拖长位于前面的元音同时将/z/清音化。以单词 prize 为例，若将/z/发成/s/就成了 price。/ / / / / /和/是腭龈摩擦音。发/和/时，舌头在口腔中的位置比发/s/与/z/时靠后，整个舌面举平抬向硬腭，双唇呈圆状。/是清辅音，/是浊辅音。发/和/时，口形要呈圆状。例如，发 /时，先摆好/s/的口形，然后舌身往后靠，接着双唇突成圆形并吐出/的音。/ h / h /发/ h /音时，摩擦不发生在口腔中的任何部位，发音时口张开，声门略为收缩，气流通过声门时只有轻微的摩擦，就像人们长出一口气那样，因此人们管它叫声门摩擦音。学习时要注意勿将/ h /发成汉语普通话中的（h）音，因为（h）在发音时， 舌根接近软腭， 所产生的气流带明显的摩擦。 请注意这两个音的区别：“害”(hai) 与 high。/t /t / /d3/d3/t/和/d3/是破擦音，发音部位与/和/相似，因此，可以在发/和/的基础上来练习/t/和/d3/的发音。发音时先将舌尖和舌端接触齿龈，如发 /t/、/d/一样，同时舌面前部向硬腭抬起，双唇稍为突出，发/和/，其结果便是破擦音/t/和/d3/.31Nasals, Approximants & Lateral(s)Nasals, Approximants & Lateral(s)Purpose:Purpose:The students will learnthe consonants: Nasals,Nasals, ApproximantsApproximants & Lateral(s)Lateral(s) inEnglish.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition for Nasals, Approximants & Lateral(s)Nasals, Approximants & Lateral(s);2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, compare them withother consonants;3.Practice imitate the sounds and do practice.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1.Stimulating: Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students knowabout what they are required to learn. Make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire tofind out theanswers themselves.2.Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing thetypical pronunciation in English.3.Ask the students to listen to the tapes to make a good discrimination of the soundsin focus.4.Have the students imitate the sound in focus.5.Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.6.Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the sounds in focus correct in their pronunciation.7.Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the sounds in focus in speech.8. Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.9. Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.10.Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.11.Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during thenext session.Nasals, Approximants & Lateral(s)Nasals, Approximants & Lateral(s)In this unit, we will learn Nasals, approximants and lateral(s) in English.Like the stops, the nasals are all made by closing the vocal tract at some point inthe mouth. Unlike the stops or any other sounds in the language, there is an openinginto the nasal cavity in the pronunciation so that the sound can be resonated throughthe nose. The nasal consonants are /m/, /n/, and / /./w/, /r/, and /j/ are called approximants because it is an articulation in which the32articulators approach each other but do not get sufficiently close to each other toproduce a complete consonant such as a stop, nasal or fricative./l/ is called a lateral because during its pronunciation, the passage of air throughthe mouth does not go in the usual way along the centre of the tongue./m/, /n/ & /m/, /n/ & / /m/ and /n/ are simple, straight-forward consonants: the /m/ occurs at the front ofthe mouth and is grouped with the labials, the /n/ is produced on the upper gum ridgeand is alveolar. The place of articulation of / is the same as that of /k/ and / /. It ismade with the back of the tongue touching the soft palate. If we compare nasals withstops, fricatives and affricates, we will find that the nasals present quite a differentpicture in that they have some vowel-like qualities: they can be syllabic. Both /m/ and/n/ can occur in initial, medial, and final position in words. /, however, never occursin word-initial position.Most Chinese EFL learners have no problems with /m/ and / /. For /n/, however,it is necessary to check for a /l/ substitution because in some Chinese dialects, n andl serve as free variants.Allophonic variations of /m/:Allophonic variations of /m/:Syllabic: somethingLengthened, when an arresting /m/ is followed by a releasing /m/:some moreThe labiodnetal nasal, when followed by /f/: comfortAllophonic variations of /n/:Allophonic variations of /n/:Dentalized before a labiodental /f/ or /v/:inviteVelarized before /k/ or /: thinkSyllabic: buttonLengthening, when /n/ arrests and releases adjoining syllables: ten namesAllophonic variations of /Allophonic variations of /: /:The alveolar n, when followed by an alveolar: taking tenSyllabic: lock and key/w/ and /j/w/ and /j/w/ and /j/ are similar in several ways. First, they are closely related to a vowelsound: /j/ is similar to the vowel /i:/ and /w/ is very much like the vowel /u:/. Becauseof this, they are also called semivowels. Secondly, neither /j/ or /w/ will ever occur inword-final position in English. Thirdly, they are both voiced consonants. Inpronunciation, for /j/ the lips are relaxed and the tongue is in the high front space; for/w/ the lips are rounded and the tongue is in the high back space. Then there is amovement away from these positions to whatever sound which follows. The moremodern term for /j/ and /w/ is approximant, which is an articulation in which thearticulators approach each other but do not get sufficiently close to each other toproduce a complete consonant such as a plosive, nasal or fricative./j/ and /w/ are not problem sounds for most Chinese EFL learners except it isnecessary to emphasize the fact that the pronunciation of /w/ requires considerable liprounding./r/r/33/r/ is the other approximant besides /j/ and /w/ in English. The important thingabout the articulation of /r/ is that the tip of the tongue approaches the alveolar area inapproximately the way it would for a /t/ or /d/, but never actually makes contact withany part of the roof of the mouth. During the pronunciation, the tongue is in factusually slightly curled backwards with the tip raised./r/ is a difficult sound for many Chinese EFL learners. The difficulties mainlycome in two ways. Some use the (r) sound in Chinese Putonghua, such as (r) 日, as asubstitution, which sounds more like a fricative than an approximant. The substitutionof a flap-r, which sounds more like a /l/ than /r/, is also common among the learners.Experience show that it is helpful to stress the necessity of the slight lip-rounding inthe pronunciation of the sound.Now, try to make a long /r/ sound and feel that no part of the tongue is in contactwith the roof of the mouth at any time.Allophonic variations of /r/:Allophonic variations of /r/:Devoiced as in voiceless clusters: treatThe one-tap flap /r/: veryThe retroflexed /r/: rightThe back /r/, before or after /k/ or /: crate grey/l/l/The fact that the /l/ phoneme is typically produced with potential air flow aroundone or both sides of the tongue makes it unique among English speech sounds. It isalso highly variable in terms of its articulation. Several important variations exist. Inpronunciation, you produce it by dropping the sides of the tongue and allowing air toescape around the sides./l/ is also one of the English speech sounds that often causes trouble for Chineselearners. Check for the typical substitution of /r/ or /n/. Another important fact about/l/ is the difference between the two distinctive allophones: clear-l and dark-l.Allophonic variations of /l/:Allophonic variations of /l/:Syllabic: bottleClear-l, made with the tongue in the classical fronted position: leaseDark-l, (the tongue tip and blade in the post alveolar position): callDevoiced in consonant clusters with voiceless stops: playThe post-palatal, or velar /l/: milk辅音辅音: : 鼻腔音、延续音和旁流音鼻腔音、延续音和旁流音本单元我们将学习英语中的鼻腔音、延续音以及旁流音。鼻腔音与爆破音相同之处在于发音时气流在口腔某一处成阻。 鼻腔音与爆破音以及所有其他音不同的是，发鼻音时口腔通道完全阻塞,气流只能通过鼻腔产生共鸣。英语的鼻腔音包括/ m、n、 /。/ w /、/ r /、/ j /是延续音。发延续音时发音器官彼此接近，但无接触、无摩擦, 亦不产生爆破。/ l /是旁流音。发音时，口腔中部形成阻碍，气流可从一侧或两侧逸出。/ m / / n / / m / / n / / / / m /和/ n /发音简单直接。/ m /是由双唇紧闭发出的音，发音时上下唇紧闭，34舌身平放，软腭下垂，气流从鼻腔泄出。 / n /是个齿音，发音时舌头抵住上齿龈。/ /的发音部位与爆破音/ k /和/ /相同，舌后部触及软腭，堵塞口腔通道，双唇开，气流从鼻腔泄出。鼻音与爆破音、摩擦音以及破擦音有很大的不同，它具有某些类似元音的性质：可以自成音节。大部分中国英语学习者发/ m /和/ n /都没有问题。我国某些方言中 n 和 l 是自由变异体，来自这些方言区的同学在学习中会有一些困难。分不清/ n /与/ l /主要的问题是将鼻腔音/ n /与口腔音/ l /混淆了。 只要严格按照两种不同的发音方法去处理，问题是不难解决的。以下是/ m /、/ n /与/ /受语音环境影响而产生的不同变体。/m/的音位变体：可自成音节，如something; 位于前面的单词以/ m /音结束而紧跟着的单词又以/ m /为首时，延长发音时间，如 some more; 后接/ f /时发成唇齿鼻音，如 comfort/ n /的音位变体: 在唇齿音/ f /或/ v /前齿化，如 invite;在/ k /或/音前软腭化，如 think;自成音节，如 button;位于前面的单词以/n/音结束而紧跟着的单词又以/ n /音为首时延长发音时间，如 ten names;/ /的音位变体: 后跟一个齿龈音时受同化而成为齿龈音 , 如 taking ten;自成音节，如 lock and key/ w / w / j / j / w /和/ j /在三个方面很相似。第一，他们的发音分别与元音 / u: /和/ i: /相似，发音时气流在通道上基本不受阻碍， 只是稍有摩擦， 因此又被称作半元音。 第二，/ w /和/ j /都不出现在英语单词的词尾。第三，他们是浊辅音。发/ j /时双唇呈扁平状，舌向硬腭抬起，略高于元音/ i: /，中间留有小缝隙形成不完全阻碍，气流从缝隙泄出时引起舌前硬腭间摩擦而成音。发/ w /时呈发/ u: /的姿势，舌向软腭抬起，双唇收圆，稍向前突出，气流在通过双唇时发生轻微摩擦而成音。现代语音学家将这两个音称作延续音。 延续音的发音器官彼此接近， 但与所谓 “完全的”辅音如爆破音、鼻音以及摩擦音不同的是，它兼具元音与辅音的特点。对于大部分的中国学生来说, 发/ w /和/ j /并不困难，需要强调的是发/ w /时双唇需要收圆。/ r / r /另一个延续音是/ r /，发音时舌尖向上齿龈后部卷起，舌前部下陷略成凹形，舌身两侧向上弯曲，双唇略突出成圆形， 气流由舌尖和齿龈后部间的缝隙泄出成音。注意舌尖不可接触上齿龈，否则就发成了/ t /和/ d /的音。对于大部分的中国学生来说，发/ r /时会出现两种问题。一些学生用汉语普通话中的（r）音（如发“日” ）代替/r/，汉语中的（r）听起来更像是摩擦音, 试比较”row” 与”肉”。还有些学生将其发成了闪音 r，听起来像是在发英语的/ l /，而不是/ r /, 如将 row 说成 low。记住发/ r /时略有圆唇。/ r /的音位变体: 位于词首的/ r /，如 right;在清辅音群中清音化，如 treat;闪音/ r /，如 very;在/ k /或/ /后的/ r /舌位稍后移，如 crate grey/ l / l / l /在英语语音中很特殊，发音时舌尖抵上齿龈，气流从一侧或两侧逸出。 /l/与别的英语辅音不同之处在于：在众多的音位变体中，有两个显得特别突出，需要加以注意： “清晰”l：位于词首元音前， “模糊”l位于词尾元音后。 “清晰”35l在发音时舌前部向着硬腭略抬起，而“模糊”l在发音时则是舌前部稍压低，舌后部却朝软腭稍为抬高。“清晰”l与汉语的（1）基本相同，需要重点练习的是“模糊”l：call, full,tall, fill。此外，在学习/ l /音时，还要注意它与/ r /与/ n /的区别，如 light, night, right。/ l /的音位变体: 舌伸向口腔最前部，形成“清晰”l，如, lease;舌尖与舌叶位于后齿龈处形成“模糊”l call;自成音节，如 bottle;与清爆破音形成辅音群时清音化，如 play;在软腭音前舌位稍后移，如 milk.36Unit 6Unit 6Connected Speech (1)Connected Speech (1)Purpose:Purpose:The students will learnthe Stressed Words & Unstressed Words in a Sentence in English.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition for Stressed Words & Unstressed Wordsin a Sentence. . It is a revision and therefore, easy for most of the students;2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, compare stressed andunstressed syllables in words and sentences;3.Practice imitate the stress patterns and do practice.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1.Stimulating: Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students knowabout what they are required to learn. Make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire tofind out theanswers themselves.2.Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing thetypical pronunciation in English.3.Ask the students to listen to the tapes to make a good discrimination of the stressin focus.4.Have the students imitate the stress patterns in focus.5.Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.6.Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the stress correct in their pronunciation.7.Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the stress in speech.8.Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.9.Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.10.Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.11.Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during thenext session.Stressed Words & Unstressed Words in a SentenceStressed Words & Unstressed Words in a SentenceIn this unit we will learn how to pronounce stressed and unstressed syllablestogether in sentences.We have made some general observations regarding the location of stress inisolated words. But since speech is made up of words strung together, we must alsolook at these words in groups, in phrases, or in sentences in order to observe whathappens to the stress pattern. Sentence stress refers to the word or words in sentence37that receive a strong accent. In most sentences you will find a series of both stressedand unstressed words.In a sentence, English speakers joint stressed and unstressed syllables togethersmoothly. Stressed syllables are long, have a pitch change and have full vowel soundswhile unstressed syllables are short and often have a reduced vowel sound. A reducedvowel sound is a short, unclear vowel sound. The short vowel sound in unstressedsyllable is very often the sound /, which is the most common of all sounds inEnglish.Now, say the following words:leaderlecturemarkerThese words all contain the schwa / in the second syllable. Try to pronounce itas a relaxed and easy sound. And since it is in the weak syllable, / / is much shorterthan the vowel in the stressed syllable.Any English vowel letter can be pronounced with the schwa /:a allowafireme enepossi iblei/co ommandosu upportuWhat to stress in a sentence?What to stress in a sentence?In an English utterance, stressed words give information to the listener andunstressed words join the information words together. Correct pronunciation ofstressedandunstressedwordsisthusextremelyimportantforeffectivecommunication in English.Information words and function wordsInformation words and function wordsInformation words are usually nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They giveinformation about who, what, when, where, why, and how. They express the main ideaor content of the phrase or sentence. They carry the message and therefore usuallystressed. Unstressed words are usually function words like articles, pronouns,possessives, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and conjunctions. These words connect theinformation words to form grammatical sentences.If you stress all the words in an utterance, you may sound unpleasant or evencause misunderstanding because:1.You are giving too much information, and2.English speakers usually stress all words only when they areimpatient or angry.句子重音句子重音本单元介绍的是英语的句子重音。英语句子，跟英语单词一样，也有重音，38叫句子重音。有句子重音的音节听起来清晰有力 ,无句子重音的音节听起来较为含糊。 句子重音总是落在单词的重读音节上。句子重音对于表达思想和感情起着重要的作用，所以也是英语语音学习的重要方面。在一个句子中，音节之间的衔接应该自然而流畅。句中的重读音节通常显得长一些，元音清晰完整，语句的语调变化也通常落在重读音节上。非重读音节则通常显得较为轻、快，音节中的元音亦较为含糊。正因为如此，非重读音节中的元音多为/。这是英语音素中出现频率最高的音素, 所有的英语元音字母在非重读音节中均可读作/:a allowafireme enepossi iblei/co ommandosu upportu在这些单词中，元音字母都处于非重读音节中，因此都读成/.句子中哪些单词需要重读？我们知道，重音的其中一个语义功能是可以通过重音进行强调, 就是说，具有语句重音的词通常是说话人想强调的词。换句话说，单词之所以重读 ,是因为说话的人表达特定信息的需要。因此，正确地选择重读音节，将重读音节与非重读音节自然流畅地连接起来，是实现语言交际的需要。英语重音的一般规律是：实义词通常重读,虚词通常不重读.也就是说， 我们可以将英语的单词分为两大类： 实义词和虚词。 所谓实义词，是指名词、动词、形容词、副词、数词等表示“谁”“什么” 、 “何时” 、 “何地” 、“为什么” 、 “怎么样”等信息的词,也叫做信息词。这些词担负着表达信息的重要任务，因此通常是句中的重读单词。虚词亦称功能词 ,含冠词、代词、介词、助动词、连词等。这些词将信息词连接起来，形成符合语法的句子。但是，英语重音的一般规律并不是一成不变的。为了表达的需要，一些通常接受句子重音的词,可能失去句子重音；而另一些通常不接受句子重音的词又可能获得句子重音。以实义词为例, 实义词通常是句中重读的单词，但如果在本句或前面一句已出现过,不再含有重要的信息，此时一般不再重读: The truck was hitby another truck. How many times have you seen the film? Three times. 再来看看功能词。功能词通常是句中的非重读单词 ,但由于信息表达的需要亦完全可以以重读的形式出现。 - Did you say “bread”? Here you are. I said “breadandbutter”. and” 在句中通常不重读，此处重读明显地是为了强调。可见，为了信息表达的需要，句中几乎每个单词都可以有句子重音。总而言之，在话语中，重音的位置主要取决于说话人的意愿和他希望表达的意思。通常，句中重要的词才具重音-实义词之所以重读是因为这类词本身含有重要的词汇意义，而虚词通常只是起功能作用。当实义词在句中不具重要信息，而虚词反而含重要意义的时候，重读的就该是虚词而非实义词。39Unit 7Unit 7Connected Speech (2)Connected Speech (2)Purpose:Purpose:The students will learnthe Strong Forms and Weak Forms in English.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition for Strong Forms and Weak Forms in aSentence. . It is a revision and therefore, easy for most of the students;2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, comparestrongforms and weak forms in syllables in words and sentences;3.Practice imitate the stress patterns and do practice.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1.Stimulating: Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students knowabout what they are required to learn. Make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire tofind out theanswers themselves.2.Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing thetypical pronunciation in English.3.Ask the students to listen to the tapes to make a good discrimination of the stressin focus.4.Have the students imitate the stress patterns in focus.5.Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.6.Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the stress correct in their pronunciation.7.Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the stress in speech.8.Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.9.Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.10.Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.11.Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during thenext session.Strong Forms and Weak FormsStrong Forms and Weak FormsIn this unit, we will learn strong forms & weak forms - two different ways ofpronouncing the word.In unstressed syllables, we often come across the short, unclear vowel /, whichis the most common of all sounds in English. This same sound also occurs in many ofthe function words when they are unstressed.40Strong forms and weak formsAs we all know, many function words in English have two pronunciations: astressed form (or strong form) and an unstressed form (or reduced form, weak form).The unstressed form is thus an alternate pronunciation of a word which is so reducedin its articulation that it consists of a different set of phonemes. / is the mostfrequently used vowel in the unstressed form and next comes /.The importance of learning unstressed formsTwo reasons are said to be most important in learning to use the unstressed formsin English. Firstly, most native speakers of English find an all-strong formpronunciation very unpleasant. Secondly, learners who are not familiar with the use ofweak forms are likely to have difficulty understanding native speakers.强读式和弱读式本单元介绍的是英语的强读式与弱读式。在英语单词和句子的弱读音节中，我们最经常听到的元音是：/ /。这是在所有英语音素中出现频率最高的音素 ,也是英语功能词在非重读时最常用的元音。强读式与弱读式英语语音的一个显著特点是,许多功能词具有两种不同的发音： 一种是在重读时的发音，称强读式;另一种是在非重读时的发音，称弱读式。强读式是指一个单词单独念的时候所采取的读音形式。在连贯发言中，当这些词接受句子重音时多用强读式，不具句子重音的词则多用弱读式。由于这些词多为虚词，在句中一般不重读，因此，它们通常以弱读式的形式出现。对于我国学生来说， 要学会单词弱读式的发音是轻而易举的事，但要做到能够运用就不容易了。最常见的读法是将应该读成弱读式的单词读作强读式，并以为那才是标准的发音。用这种方法说英语，不仅影响语流，还使听者感到别扭，甚至可能产生误会。以单词 and 为例。 and 的发音有以下几种可能性： 1） /nd/, 2） /nd/, 3） /n/,4） /n/, 其中以 3） 最为常见。 短语 in and out 通常读作/in n aut/, 短语 horse andcart 通常读作/h:s nk:t/。 1） 与 2） 常用于句首。 如果将句中的 and 都读作/nd/的话，话语就使人听起来很别扭。有时，在一些固定搭配中错用强读式还会产生误会。比如，作为早餐的食物是 bread and butter/bred n b t/，但在超级市场上买的是 bread and butter/bred nd bt/，意即成条的面包以及成包的奶油。假如在饭桌上点早餐时将 bread and butter 中的 and 读作重读， 则可能使人以为说话人在强调多要点奶油，或者是在批评别人奶油放得太少了。误会就可能由此产生。此外能否掌握好英语的弱读式也影响着我们的英语听力理解，因为具有强弱两种读音方式的单词是英语中最常见的单词，出现频率相当高，掌握好英语的弱读式无疑将提高对所听到的语言材料的解码能力， 从而正确而全面地获得语言材料所传达的信息。41LinkingLinkingPurpose:Purpose:The students will learntheLinking in English.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition forLinking in a Sentence. . It is a revisionand therefore, easy for most of the students;2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, compare differenttypes of linking in connected speech;3.Practice imitate the stress patterns and do practice.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1.Stimulating: Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students knowabout what they are required to learn. Make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire tofind out theanswers themselves.2.Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing thetypical pronunciation in English.3.Ask the students to listen to the tapes to make a good discrimination of linking inconnected speech.4.Have the students imitate the linking in utterances.5.Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.6.Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the linking correct in their pronunciation.7.Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the stress in speech.8.Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.9.Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.10.Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.11.Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during thenext session.LinkingLinkingIn this unit we will learn the various types of linking in English speech.Linking is such a common phenomena that if you pronounce each English wordseparately when you speak, without linking, English speakers may not understand you.You may also have problems in comprehension of the native speech.42What is linking?What is linking?When speakers of English are speaking, they arrange words into groups and jointogether the stressed and unstressed words within the group. They move smoothlyfrom one word to the next without making any sudden stops. So when we listen totheir speech, we hear the end of one word flow straight into the beginning of the next.This phenomena of joining words together is called linking.How to link words in English speech?How to link words in English speech?Speakers of English join words together by blending or joining the last sound of aword with the initial sound of the following word. Following are the various ways tohelp you achieve the linking so that your speech will become fluent and natural.1.To blend or join the final consonant of one word with the initial word of thefollowing word, as in post office.2.To link the final vowels /:/ and / to a following vowel by adding the /r/ sound,which is called linking-r, as in her own, or intrusive-r, as in the idea of.3. To make smooth transitions when words are separated by more than twoconsonants, i.e. treat them as consonant sequences, as in next topic.4. To make smooth transitions when the preceding word ends with a vowel and thefollowing word begins also with a vowel sound by adding a slight /j/ or /w/, as inmy arm.5. To change the pronunciation of some final and initial consonants, as in Didyou .Linking is natural in English speech. To make natural linking, it is important tosay groups of words in one breath and keep your voice going from one word to thenext.连读连读本单元我们学习的是英语话语中的另一个语音现象：连读。何谓“连读”？我们在说话时,语音一连串地发出，便产生语流。连读是指在谈话，尤其是自然的语流中，句中或短语中相接邻的词之间的连接。换句话说，英语的话语规律是把同一意群中的重读与非重读单词连在一起说 , 词与词之间的过渡自然而不存在停顿。 所以我们听英语话语时听到的是一个词的结尾直接连到另一个词的开头。这种语音现象被称为连读。连读是英语口语中非常普遍的语音现象。如果你在说英语时一个一个单词地的讲而不是按照英语的语音规律将词与词连接起来， 听者完全可能听不懂你在说什么。 掌握英语连读这一语音现象不仅有助于提高我们英语话语的流利程度，有助于信息的表达，同时也有助于提高我们的听力。英语话语中词与词之间应该如何连读？简单地说，连读时就是把位于前面的单词的最后一个音与下一个单词的第一个音自然地混为一体, 使你的话语听起来流利自然。以下几种连读的方法可以帮你达到这一目的。1.当一个词以辅音结尾，后面一个词以元音开头时, 将前一个单词结尾的辅音与下一个单词开头的元音连在一起读，如 post office;432.当单词以元音/:/与/结尾且后面单词以元音开头时，中间加一/r/音，这叫做 r 音连读，如 her own(称 r 音连读), the ideaof(称外加音 r 的连读);3.当两个词之间存在两个或两个以上辅音时，连接这两个词的办法就是将其作为辅音组合处理，如 nexttopic;4.当前一个单词以元音结尾而紧接着的单词又以元音开头时，两个元音应尽量连起来念 , 必要时两个单词中间可以加个轻柔的/j/或/w/作为转折，如myarm;5.有时一个音由于受邻接的音的影响而发生读音变化，即我们通常称之为“同化”的语音现象，如 Didyou ?在学习英语连读时需要注意的是：连读是连贯讲话时自然发生的语音现象。讲话的语速快了，相邻的词一气呵成地连贯而出则是再自然不过的了。反之，说话语速慢时,连读的现象自然就少一些。因此，不要把连读理解成有意识的拼读,使之显得生硬、欠自然。44Rhythm of English SpeechRhythm of English SpeechPurpose:Purpose:The students will learntheLinking in English.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition forRhythm of English Speech. . It is arevision and therefore, easy for most of the students;2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, compare differenttypes of speech rhythm in connected speech;3.Practice imitate the stress patterns and do practice.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1.Stimulating: Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students knowabout what they are required to learn. Make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire tofind out theanswers themselves.2.Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing thetypical pronunciation in English.3.Ask the students to listen to the tapes to make a good discrimination of rhythmicpatterns in connected speech.4.Have the students imitate the speech rhythm in utterances.5.Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.6.Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the rhythm correct in their pronunciation.7.Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the stress in speech.8.Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.9.Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.10.Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.11.Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during thenext session.Rhythm of English SpeechRhythm of English SpeechIn this unit, we will learn the rhythm of English speech.Every language in the world has its own rhythmic patterns. English is verydifferent from Chinese in its rhythmic patterns. From what we learned in the previousunits, we know that English depends on the correct pronunciation of stressed andunstressed or weakened syllables recurring in the same phrase or sentence in theexpression of ideas. In another word, variation of words or syllables that have strong45stress with those that have weaker or reduced stress is typical and contributes to therhythm of English. When English speakers are speaking, therefore, they usually:make some parts of words stronger and clearer than other partsjoin parts of the words togetherarrange words into groups and join them togethermake some words stronger and clearer than other words.If a Chinese EFL learner fails to follow the rules and say all English words in asentence in a strong way, English speakers maynot understand what he says, orthink that he is impolite or angry.Misunderstanding may arise or communication may break down because of that.So, for more effective communication, we need to master the rhythm of English.In conclusion, rhythm in English speech is based on stress. A rhythm unit isformed by a stressed syllable, together with unstressed syllables which may comebefore that stress and/or after it. Here are some examples./Tom/Tom/JohnJohn/SteveSteve/SamSam/Thom/Thomson/JohnJohnson/StevSteven/SamSamson/Thom/Thomsonand /JohnJohnsonand /StevStevenand /SamSamson/Thom/Thomson and then /JohnJohnson and then /StevStevenand then /SamSamsonLetters in bold here represent stressed syllables. The beat is marked with a /. Youcan hear a beat on the stressed syllable. When you are practising, you can even tapyour hands to keep the rhythm of the above phrases. It is, therefore, the rhythmpattern of an English sentence that the stressed syllables follow each other at roughlyequal intervals of time.Lets look at the pairs of word phrases and sentences on page 130 in yourtextbook.Black or white?It was black and it was white.soft and lightIts soft and its light.Dan and SueIt was Danny and it was Susie.bread and milkSome bread and some milk.Get a purse.Get us her purse.a dark roomIt was dark in the room.cold winterIt was cold in the winter.On the left hand side column we see sentences or phrases with three syllablesamong which two are stressed. On the right hand side column, there are four to ninesyllables in each of the sentences. We notice, however, it takes about the same lengthof time to say each pair of these phrases and sentences because the number ofsyllables may vary but the number of stressed syllables are the same.To achieve this similar length of time, we have toadjust the length of wordsaccording to the context. The stressed information words are usually long, speciallywhen there are few or no function words between them. When there are functionwords between the strong stresses, English speakers make them very short so they fitbetween the stresses by1. reducing the vowels (using the weak vowel or schwa, for example),462. linking words together, and3. squeezing the words together and say them quickly.Look at some more examples. Each of the following sentences is made up of fourstressed content words. The content words are underlined and the stressed syllable ofthese words are in bold. The number of unstressed syllables between the stressedsyllables is different, from two to four. In normal speech, however, the stressedsyllables follow each other at roughly equal intervals of time. So, each phrase in thefollowing sentences takes about the same length of time to say.1.Do you thinkthink you would be a able to fi finish it in a monthmonth?2.She saidsaid that she would likelike us to taketake it awayway.3.He turnedturned to the leftleft at the endend of the streetstreet.4.I shouldshouldnt have thoughtthought that she could apprepreciate the approachproach.话语节奏话语节奏本单元介绍的是英语的话语节奏。言语节奏指的是人们在说话时胸部肌肉收缩和放松产生的节奏, 是指人们感知为响亮高峰音或节拍的重音所形成的模式。 语言学家将言语节奏分为音节定时节奏和重音定时节奏两大类：每个音节出现的时间间隔相等的为音节定时节奏，重读音节等时重复出现的为重音定时节奏。法语通常被认为属音节定时节奏语言，汉语的普通话也具有按音节定时的趋势。英语则通常被称为按重音定时的。英语话语的重读规律是: 重读与非重读音节相间出现。重读音节与紧跟其后的非重读音节一起组成重音组。在不受迟疑（可使人说话速度放慢）或激动（可使人说话速度加快）等因素影响的情况下 , 话语中重音之间的间隔时间大致相等。也就是说，根据英语的节奏规律，话语说起来所需的时间不决定于它有多少个词，多少个音节，而决定于它有多少个句子重音。假如句子重音之间的非重读音节数多，结果必然是说起来要快一些，含糊一些。同时，为了求得这种“大致相等” ，话语中单词的发音也可能由于受到语言环境的影响而产生不同程度的变化。例如，在以下这个句子中共有重读音节四个，这些重读音节之间所含的非重读音节数分别为：两个、三个、四个，但在话语中，人们的感觉是：重读音节出现的间隔是大致相等的。Do you thinkthink you would be a able to fi finish it in a monthmonth?又比方，下列几个句子的音节数不同，但所含重读音节数相同 , 因此, 在说话速度相同的情况下，完成句子所需的时间亦大致相等：JohnJohn is herehere nownow.JohnJohn will be at home home tonightnight.The profesfessor is in LonLondon this eveevening.我们可以从以上的例子得出几点结论：一、句中重读音节相继出现的地方，通常语速会慢一些, 音节听起来自然也清楚一些。二、重读音节之间拥挤着出现的非重读音节听起来轻快而且含糊。三、一句话说起来所需时间长短不取决于句中的单词数或音节数, 而取决于句中有多少个重读音节。总而言之，英语的话语节奏是一种有规则的节拍。掌握英语的节奏规律，主47要涉及：句子的重音模式、节律模式、音的连读、音的同化、省音与缩约、弱读等方面。练习英语话语节奏的重点是：学会顺利地、匀称地从一个重读音节移动到下一个重读音节，特别要学会把重读音节中间夹带的非重读音节读好。掌握英语节奏规律可以提高话语的流利和自然程度以及听力理解的水平。48Unit 8Unit 8Connected Speech (3)Connected Speech (3)Purpose:Purpose:The students will learnthe Types of Intonation in EnglishTypes of Intonation in English in English.Objectives: Students will be able to :Objectives: Students will be able to :1.Define - in their own words a definition for intonation. .2.Compare based on the understanding of the basic concept, compare differenttypes of intonation in speech;3.Practice imitate the stress patterns and intonation and do practice.Activities and Procedures:Activities and Procedures:1.Stimulating: Begin by asking the class to find out how much the students knowabout what they are required to learn. Make sure that it serves the purpose ofstimulating the students to think about the issue and have the desire tofind out theanswers themselves.2.Display examples by playing the recording of the native speakers showing thetypical pronunciation in English.3.Ask the students to listen to the tapes to make a good discrimination of rhythmicpatterns in connected speech.4.Have the students imitate the speech rhythm in utterances.5.Have the students share what they have learned by reading out the practicematerials in pairs.6.Have the students listen to the conversations recorded by native speakers ofEnglish and try to get the rhythm correct in their pronunciation.7.Have the students practice the guided conversation. Ask them to pay specialattention to the stress in speech.8.Highlight the language function in the conversation in the practice.9.Have several pairs of the students present their conversation in the class.10.Comment on the students performance by highlighting the achievement of thestudents and the efforts they need for the improvement.11.Ask the students to do more practice after class and get ready for presentation during thenext session.Types of Intonation in EnglishTypes of Intonation in EnglishIn this unit, we will learn types of intonation in English.We call the melody of language intonation. Intonation refers to the total pattern ofpitch changes, i.e., the rising and falling of the voice when a person is speaking,within an utterance. Intonation is another important element of spoken English. It isthe English intonation which makes English sound really English.Intonation makes speech meaningful. English intonation adds the meaning of anutterance in two ways:A. It shows the relationship of words within and between sentences;49B. It tells something about the feeling of the speaker.In other words, different pitches may indicate different meanings for the sameutterance. Different pitches help us express our feelings: happiness, sadness, surprise,annoyance, anger, and so on. In listening to the meaning of an utterance, therefore, welisten to how speakers talk as well as to what they say. The HOW and WHAT togethergive us the meaning of an English utterance.We now see the importance touse the appropriate intonation patterns when wespeak. Otherwise, we may be sending messages using intonations that contradict whatwe want words to say. Intonation patterns that disagree with the content of theutterance may indicate doubt, sarcasm, or confusion.Basic intonation patternsEnglish has two basic intonation patterns: rising and falling. When they gotogether, they can make a falling-rising tone.Look at the following Example:a)-Is John in?-No, Johns not in.b)-Is John in?-No, Johns not in.Is John is? has rising intonation. The pitch of the voice goes up at the end of theutterance. The speaker is asking a question. No, Johns not in in a) has fallingintonation. The pitch of the voice goes down at the end of the utterance. The speakeris answering a question. No, Johns not in in b) has falling-rising intonation. Thepitch of the voice goes down first and then goes up at the end of the utterance. Thespeaker is answering a question with implication, such as: Johns not in, but hiswife/sister/brother is.Types of intonation patterns we have to learnEnglish can very well be spoken correctly and naturally with the three intonationpatterns: falling, rising and falling-rising.英语语调的种类英语语调的种类本单元介绍的是英语语调的种类。话语中声调高低的变化就叫语调。英语语调特有的表现形式是我们学习英语语音的重要组成部分。语调可以使话语的含义完整和明确。英语语调的作用主要表现在：一、表示句中单词和句子之间的语法关系，二、表示说话人的态度以及他想表达的隐含意思。换句话说，同样一句话用不同的语调说出来, 表达的可能是完全不同的含义，语调可以帮助我们表达喜悦、忧伤、惊奇、懊恼、愤怒等不同的情感。因此，我们在听人说话的时候，听的不仅仅是说话的内容，还包括说话的方式，即语调和语气。内容 (“他说了什么”)和表达方式（ “他是怎么说的” ）加在一起才能形成话语的完整含义。语调所表达的种种含义和态度，如不了解，一方面，不能听出说话人话里隐含的意思以及说话人的态度，另一方面，自己用错语调，可能使对方产生误会，而自己还莫名其妙。本教程介绍的语调， 是按照英国英语的系统阐述的。英语存在几种变异,如美50国英语、澳大利亚英语，等等，语音系统、语调系统各有差异，但并不影响互相间通过语言进行交际和相互了解。尽管在连贯讲话里，语调听起来变化多端, 但将话语切分成语调单位，不外乎降调和升调。 可以说降调和升调是英语的基本语调。将降升调的作用联合在一起，就成了降升调。英语的降调：降调是英语最常见的音调变化。降调表示确定和完整，即说话人认为这句话已经完满了。降调主要用在：陈述句、特殊疑问句、表示命令的祈使句、感叹句等句子。英语的升调：升调是英语的另一个常用调。升调表示不确定、不完整，通常用在要求对方用 yes 或 no 回答的句子。同时，升调还表示我们的话还没有说完，或者还有待于再研究，并非结论。例如，我们正在数数，还没数完之前用升调；句子还没说完是用升调；要征求别人的意见时也常用升调。另外，由于升调没有那种断然下结论的口气，因而可以使祈使句变得委婉一些。较长的陈述句中句子的前一部分、表示请求或劝说的祈使句等也通常用升调。英语的降升调。降升调也是英语的常用语调之一。降升调就是把降调与升调的作用联合在一起， 用来表示对某件事肯定了， 有把握了， 同时有附加一些保留、让步或暗含的对比。说白了，就是“话里有话”,或通过语调表示“言外之意” 。可见，降升调的使用比较复杂。由于降升调可用来表示对比、言外之意、相反的意见甚至警告等等， 常用于以下情况： 含有对比的陈述句、 含保留意见的陈述句、含警告口吻的祈使句等。英语的语调当然不止三种，但作为外语学生, 掌握了以上三种语调就基本上能表达我们所需要说明的信息了。Intonation Units of EnglishIn this unit, we will learn something about intonation units of English.Intonation units are also called intonation-groups, tone groups or tone-units. Anintonation unit usually corresponds to a sense group (or word group). An intonationunit may contain several syllables, some of them stressed and some unstressed. Thelast stressed syllable is usually a marker of the highest importance and has the focusstress. On this syllable, there takes place a change of pitch, either an upward ordownward movement, or a combination of the two.Nucleus of an intonation unitA nucleus refers to the syllable in an intonation unit which carries maximalprominence. For example, this is the normal way of saying the following sentence:I am WRIting a LETter to him NOW.There are ten syllables in this sentence among which three are stressed syllables.The last stressed syllable is NOW. So we say that NOW has the focus stress, and isthe tonic syllable and therefore is the nucleus of the intonation unit. The nucleus is theessential part of the intonation unit. It is still present even if the unit consists of asingle syllable, as is the case with many sentence words like yes, no, why, etc.Tail, Head & Pre-head of an intonation unitAny syllable or syllables that may follow the nucleus in an intonation unit arecalled the tail. In the sentence I am WRIting a LETter to him, the nucleus of thisintonation unit is on the tonic syllable LET. There are three unstressed syllables51after the nucleus. These syllables are called the tail of this intonation unit.The part of an intonation unit that extends from the first stressed syllable up to thenucleus ia called the head of the intonation unit. In the sentence I am WRIting aLETter to him, the head of this intonation unit is made up of three syllables:writing a.Any unstressed syllable or syllables that may precede the head, or the nucleusif there is no head, are called the pre-head. In the sentence I am WRIting a LETterto him, I am comprises the pre-head of this intonation unit.So if you analyze the following sentence, we will come up with the structure ofan intonation unit like this:I amWRIting aLET ter to him.PHNTP = Pre-headH = HeadN = NucleusT = TailFollowing are the possible structures of an intonation unit:Structures of an intonation unitStructures of an intonation unitPHNT:We are learning a foreign language.PHN:I am afraid we cant go.PNT:We hope so.PN:It was at night.HNT:When are they coming?HN:Peter has arrived.NT:Look at him.N:Help!In conclusion, a nucleusis the last fully stressed word in an intonation unithas the biggest pitch change in the unitcan be longer and louder than the other stresses in the unitcarries a lot of weight in conveying the messagecan be on any word or phrase in the unitThe following same short sentence can have the nucleus on different wordsconveying different message:They flew to LonLondon.They flew toto London.They flewflew to London.TheyThey flew to London.52The nucleus is on the last stressed syllable of theintonation unit, which is the normal way of thesentence spoken as in English. the last informationword is usually the last stressed word which has thenucleus.They flew toto London.The nucleus is on the preposition: toto, which is notusually stressed. The speaker wants to highlightdirection: They flew toto London not fromfrom London.They flewflew to London.The nucleus is on the verb: flewflew. The speakerwants to highlight how they travelled: They flewflew toLondon instead of drivingdriving to London.TheyThey flew to London.The nucleus is on the personal pronoun: theythey,which is not stressed normally. The speaker wants tohighlight whowho did this: TheyThey, not youyou, or wewe flew toLondon.Nucleus placing is important as English speakers use nucleus tofocus listeners attentionmake meaning clearcontrast information英语的语调单位英语的语调单位本单元要求我们掌握的是英语的语调单位。语调单位又称作语调群, 是语言中语调的基本单位。 一个语调单位通常相当于一个意群， 由一个重读音节和若干个非重读音节组成。每个语调单位中至少有一个是响亮音。最响亮的高峰音称为语调单位的核心（nucleus） ，即语调开始起变化的那个音节。 语调单位通常由几个词组成， 当然， 也可以只含一个重读音节。完整的语调单位由以下四个部分组成：调冠、调头、调核、调尾。语调单位的调核语调单位的调核调核是指语调单位中最具重要性的音节。例如，这是下面句子的一般说法：I am WRIting a LETter to him NOW.这个句子有 10 个音节，其中 3 个是重读音节。最后一个重读音节是 NOW。所以，也是语调单位的调核。调核是语调单位的核心部分。即使这个语调单位只含一个音节，如单字句 Yes. No. Why?等，调核仍然是不可或缺的部分。语调单位的调尾、调头、调冠语调单位的调尾、调头、调冠在语调单位中，所有出现在调核之后的音节都称之为“调尾” 。在句子 I amWRIting a LETter to him.中，语调单位的调核在音节 LET 上。调核之后有 3个非重读音节。这些音节是语调单位的调尾。语调单位中从第一个重读音节到调核前的那一部分是语调单位的“调头” 。句子 I am WRIting a LETter to him 中， “调头” 由 3 个音节组成： “writing a”。任何在调头，或若如无调头则在调核之前的非重读音节称作“调冠”。句子“ I am WRIting a LETter to him”中， “I am”组成了这一语调单位的“调冠” 。以下是句子 I am writing a letter to him.的语调结构分析：53They flew to LonLondon.I amWRIting aLET ter to him.PHNTP=调冠H=调头N=调核T=调尾以下是语调单位的几种结构：PHNT:We are learning a foreign language.PHN:I am afraid we cant go.PNT:We hope so.PN:It was at night.HNT:When are they coming?HN:Peter has arrived.NT:Look at him.N:Help!总而言之，调核：是语调单位中最后一个重读音节是出现语调变化的音节通常比同一语调单位中的其他重音更为响亮在信息的传达中起着举足轻重的作用可以出现在语调单位的任何一个词或短语中以 They flew to London.一句为例，调核不同，传递的信息也不同：They flew to Lon London. 调核在语调单位中最后一个重读音节上，这是英语句子的通常说法, 即调核通常出现在最后一个信息词上。They flew to to London调核在介词 toto 上。toto 通常是非重读音节。说话者此时想强调的是方向：他们乘飞机去（toto）伦敦而不是(fromfrom)从伦敦来。They flew flew to London 调核在动词 flewflew 上。说话者想强调他们是怎样旅行的：他们乘飞机（flewflew）去伦敦,而不是开车(drivingdriving)去伦敦.TheyThey flew to London 调核在人称 theythey 上，这又是一个通常是不重读的单词。说话人想强调是谁(whowho)飞往伦敦：他们(TheyThey)，不是你们（youyou） ，也不是我们(we(we)乘飞机去伦敦。调核位置很重要, 因为说话人要用调核来:吸引听者的注意力清楚地阐明句子的含义对信息加以对比54Use of English IntonationUse of English IntonationIntroductionIntroductionIn this unit, we will learn more about English intonation: its functions and uses.Intonation and stress work together to express meaning. Intonation makes iteasier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey. Following areoften cited as important functions of English intonation:The attitudinal functionThe attitudinal functionIntonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes. For instance, the samesentence can be said in different ways, which might be labeled happy, grateful,angry, bored, and so on. Usually, intonation units with high heads sound morelively, interesting than those with low heads. A few generalisations are often madehere: the falling intonation is said to be more often associated with completeness anddefiniteness; the rising intonation is more often associated with incompleteness anduncertainty or questioning; The falling-rising is said to have feelings of hesitation,contrast, reservation or doubt.The accentual functionThe accentual functionThe location of the tonic syllable is of considerable linguistic importance. Themost common position for this is on the last information word of the intonation unit.For contrastive purpose, however, any word may bear the tonic syllable.The grammatical functionThe grammatical functionSome sentence may be ambiguous when written, but this can be removed by theuse of intonation. An often cited example is the sentence Those who sold quicklymade a profit. This sentence can be said in at least two different ways:a. /Those whosoldquickly /made aprofit.b. /Those whosold/quicklymade aprofit.English speakers hear two different paraphrases of the sentences because of thedifferent placement of the tone-unit boundary, as in:a. A profit was made by those who sold quickly.b.A profit was quickly made by those who sold.Another example is the use of rising tone instatements. The sentence Theyregoing to have a picnic is usually said as a statement like this:a. They re going to have a picnic.In informal speech, however, we may hear:b. Theyre going to have a picnic? (But, its raining outside.)The sentence serves as a question here.The intonation used in question-tags can have a rising tone or a falling tone:a. Theyre coming tomorrow,arent they?b.Theyre coming tomorrow,arent they?When it has a falling tone, as in (a), the speaker is comparatively certain that theinformation is correct, and simply asking for conformation, while the rising tone in (b)is said to indicate a lesser degree of certainty, so the speaker is asking for information.The discourse function of intonationThe discourse function of intonationIn speech, people often use intonation to focus the listeners attention on aspects55of the message that are most important. So the placement of nucleus or tonic stressdepends on the information content: the more predictable a words occurrence is in agiven context, the lower its information content is. For example, people would say:The telephones ringing.The kettles boiling.In speech, people often use the falling tone to indicate new information and risingtone (including falling-rising) to indicate shared of given information.People also use intonation to indicate to others that they have finished speakingand that another person is expected to speak.英语语调的功能及使用英语语调的功能及使用本单元学习的重点是英语语调的功能及使用。语音学家将英语语音语调的功能概括为以下几点：一、一、 强调功能强调功能- Did you say a lighter shade?- No, a brighter shade.调核一般位于最后一个实义词上，但在以上的回答中，调核位于brighter 而非 shade，目的在于突出信息中心。二、语法功能二、语法功能Those who sold quickly made a profit.这个句子根据调核位置的不同， 可能有两个不同的意思。假定这句话含两个调核：前者为降升调，后者为降调。如果降升调的调核位置在单词 sold 前面:Those who sold quickly made a profit.意思是：只要出售了便能迅速取得利润。若降升调调核的位置落在单词 sold 后面:Those who sold quickly made a profit.意思则为：销售得快才能获取利润。此外，语调的语法功能还表现在可以将一个陈述句变成疑问句，例如：They re going to have a picnic.如果用升调说出来，句子就成了问句:Theyre going to have a picnic?用升调说出这一句子时,含义可能有两个：一是作为普通的一般疑问句（多见于非正规的使用场合）二是作为重复问句，用于以下场合：- They re going to have a picnic.- Theyre going to have a picnic? But, its raining outside.另外，我们知道反意疑问句既可用降调亦可用升调，只是含义有所不同：c. Theyre coming tomorrow, arent they? (说话人的把握较大，通常用于需要证实的时候)d.Theyre coming tomorrow, arent they? (说话人把握不大，通常用于需要了解情况的时候)三、语段功能三、语段功能语段功能最常见的作用是使用语调引起听者对重要信息的注意力。语调的其56