HumanLearning1Maincontentsofthischapter1.Fourdifferenttheoriesoflearninginthefieldofpsychology2.Eighttypesoflearning3.Threephenomenainsecondlanguageacquisitionandtheirmeanings4.Inductiveanddeductivereasoningandsecondlanguageacquisition5.Intelligenceandsecondlanguagelearning21.1Fourdifferenttheoriesoflearninginthefieldofpsychology1)classicalbehaviorism;2)neo-behaviorism;3)meaningfullearningtheory;4)humanisticpsychologyFrombehavioristicsideFromcognitiveside3ClassicalbehaviorismwTheRussianpsychologistIvanPavlov.wThelearningprocessconsistsoftheformationofassociationsbetweenstimuliandreflexiveresponses.wClassicalorRespondentconditioning4567ClassicalconditioningisStimulus(S)elicitsResponse(R)conditioningWhereclassicalconditioningillustratesS-Rlearning,operantconditioningisoftenviewedasR-SlearningInthisclassicalexperiment,Pavlovtrainedadog,byrepeatedoccurrencestoassociatethesoundofthebellwithsalivationuntilthedogacquiredaconditionedresponse:salivationatthesoundofthebell.Apreviouslyneutralstimulushadacquiredthepowertoelicitaresponsethatwasoriginallyelicitedbyanotherstimulus.8Neo-behaviorismwB.F.SkinnerwOperantconditioningwOperantbehaviorisbehaviorinwhichone“operates”ontheenvironment,withinthismodeltheimportanceofstimuliisdeemphasized.9Next 1011w1.Whenaneventthatfollowsabehaviorresultsinthebehaviorhavingalowerprobabilityofhappeninginthefuturetheprocessthatisatworkisknownas:a.punishmentb.reinforcement2.Anyeventorstimulusthatincreasesthefrequencyofthebehavioritfollowsiscalled:a.apunisherb.areinforcerab121.Respondentsaresetsofresponsesthatareelicitedbyidentifiablestimuli.2.Operantsaresetsofresponsesthatareemittedandgovernedbytheconsequencestheyproduce.e.g.:cryingababygetshurtHecriesacryingbabyhegetsfedInclassicalconditioning,theimportanceofstimuliisemphasized(imitation,practice,habitformation),whileinoperantconditioning,theconsequencesofourbehaviorisemphasized（rewardsandnopunishment).RO13MeaningfullearningtheorywDavidAusubelwLearningisameaningfulprocessofrelatingneweventsoritemstoalreadyexistingcognitiveconceptsorpropositions.wRotelearningandmeaningfullearning.wSystematicforgetting14wRotelearninginvolvesverbatimmemorization.Rememberingphonenumbers,anddates,andnamesareexamplesofrotelearning.Repeatingthistypeofmaterialhelpsalearnerrecallitexactlyasitwaspresented.Stuffthatdoesntrelatetoanythingelseislearnedbyrote.wMeaningfullearning,ontheotherhand,istiedandrelatedandintegratedtopreviouslearning.Needlesstosay,meaningfullearningisgenerallymorepowerfulandinteresting.15imagineyouwereaskedtotake30secondstomemorizethefollowingcodesymbolsforthenumbers1-9:16But.withonesimplechangetothewayinwhichthesymbolsarepresented-andwithoutchangingthesymbols:17SystematicforgettingwForgettingissystematic.wForgettingisreallyasecondstageofsubsumption(归入整合过程)foraneconomicalreasonthroughcognitivepruning（认知删除）whereasingleinclusive/global(广泛全面的)conceptthanalargenumberofmorespecificitemsisretained（记忆）.18MeaningfullearningtheorywAnylearningsituationcanbemeaningfuliflearnershaveameaningfullearningsetandthelearningtaskitselfispotentiallymeaningfultothelearners.wAmeaningfullylearned,subsumeditemhasgreaterpotentialforretention.19HumanisticpsychologywCarlRogersshumanisticpsychologyhasmoreofanaffectivefocusthanacognitiveone.wRogersstudiedthe“wholeperson”asaphysical,cognitive,butprimarilyemotionalbeing,thatis,learnersshouldberespectedashumanbeings.wWhatisneededisrealfacilitatorsoflearning,onecanonlyfacilitatebyestablishinganinterpersonalrelationshipwiththelearners.20wLearninghowtolearnismoreimportantthanwhatistaught.wTeachersasfacilitatorsmustprovidethenurturingcontextforlearningandnotseetheirmissionasoneofratherprogrammaticallyfeedingstudentsquantitiesofknowledgewhichtheysubsequentlydevourandteachersmustestablishaclimateofnondefensivelearningwempowermentofstudents(studentsareallowedtonegotiatelearning)21Eighttypesoflearningw1)signallearningw2)stimulusresponselearningw3)chainingw4)verbalassociationw5)multiplediscriminationw6)conceptlearningw7)principlelearningw8)problemsolvingbehavioristiccognitive22w1)Signallearninggenerallyoccursinthetotallanguageprocess.w2)Stimulusresponselearningisquiteevidentintheacquisitionofthesoundsystemofaforeignlanguage.w3)chainingisevidentintheacquisitionofphonologicalsequencesandsyntacticpatterns.w4)verbalassociationisnotreallyaseparatetypeoflanguagelearning.w5)multiplediscriminationsarenecessaryinSLLwhere,forexample,awordhastotakeonseveralmeanings.23w6)Conceptlearningisintheacquisitionoflinguisticconceptssuchasrulesofsyntax.w7)Principlelearningistheextensionofconceptlearningtotheformationofalinguisticsystem.w8)Problemsolvingoccurswhenthelearnermeetsproblemstobesolved.24ThreephenomenainSLLwtransfer1)Transferisageneraltermdescribingthecarryoverofpreviousknowledgetosubsequentlearning.2)transferpositiveandnegative3)positivetransfer:thepriorknowledgebenefitsthelearningtask4)negativetransfer:thepreviousknowledgedisruptsthelearningtask25InterferencewInterference:previouslylearnedmaterialinterfereswithsubsequentmaterial.wExamples: Goodgoodstudy,daydayup.（好好学习，天天向上）（好好学习，天天向上） Youreallyhavetwodownsons.（你真有两下子）（你真有两下子） Openthedoorseemountain（开门见山）（开门见山） Fiveflowerseightdoors（五花八门）（五花八门）Peoplemountainpeoplesea（人山人海）（人山人海）26OvergeneralizationwOvergeneralization:itistheuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations.wInSLLovergeneralizationisaprocessthatoccursasthesecondlanguagelearneractswithinthetargetlanguage,generalizingaparticularruleoriteminthesecondlanguagebeyondlegitimatebounds.27wExample：1)Headvisedmetogiveupsmoking.2)Hetoldmetogiveupsmoking.3)*Hesuggestedmetogiveupsmoking.28InductiveandDeductiveInductivereasoning:onestoresanumberofspecificinstancesandinducesagenerallaworconclusionthatgovernsthespecificinstances.Deductivereasoning:isamovementfromgeneralizationtospecificinstances.Inductive:fromspecifictogeneralDeductive:fromgeneraltospecific29DeductiveReasoning(top-down)Wemightbeginwiththinkingupatheory aboutourtopicofinterest.Wethennarrowthatdownintomorespecifichypothesesthatwecantest.Wenarrowdownevenfurtherwhenwecollectobservationstoaddressthehypotheses.Thisultimatelyleadsustobeabletotestthehypotheseswithspecificdata-aconfirmation(ornot)ofouroriginaltheories.30InductiveReasoning(bottom-up)wIninductivereasoning,webeginwithspecificobservationsandmeasures,begintodetectpatternsandregularities,formulatesometentativehypothesesthatwecanexplore,andfinallyendupdevelopingsomegeneralconclusionsortheories.315.IntelligenceandSLLHowardGardnerstheoryofintelligenceLinguisticintelligence(语言智能语言智能)Logical-mathematicalintelligence(数学逻辑智能数学逻辑智能)Spatialintelligence(空间智能空间智能)Musicalintelligence(音乐智能音乐智能)Bodily-kinestheticintelligence(身体运动智能身体运动智能)Interpersonalintelligence(人际智能人际智能)Intrapersonalintelligence(自我认知智能自我认知智能)Naturalistintelligence(自然认知智能自然认知智能)32RobertSternbergs“triarchic”viewofintelligencewComponentialabilitywExperientialabilitywContextualability33uOllersuggested,“Languagemaynotbemerelyavitallinkinthesocialsideofintellectualdevelopment,itmaybetheveryfoundationofintelligenceitself.”u“adeeprelationship,perhapsevenanidentity,betweenintelligenceandlanguageability.”34Five“designer”methodsintheclassroomwCommunityLanguageLearning(社团语言学习法)wSuggestopedia(暗示法) wTheSilentWay(默示教学法)wTotalPhysicalResponse(全身反应法)wTheNaturalApproach(自然教学法)35Thankyouforyourattention!36