Relevance-TheoryRelevance-Theory报告报告A Summary of Relevance and Understanding1.Introduction2.Understanding Overt Communication3.The Nature and Role of Context4.Relevance Theory5.The Criterion of Consistency with the Principle of Relevance6.Some Consequences of Relevance Theory1.Introductionl Intentional comunication ( involves a degree of manipulation or concealment) lOvert communication 明示交际 (there are no hidden intentions in it ) lCommunication (overt,intentional)lUnderstanding (recovering the overtly intended interpretation)lUnderstanding the utterance:relevance and understanding are two sides of a single coin. 2. Understanding Overt CommunicationlCode Model语码模式 （all theories of communication were based on a single model.According to the code model, communication is achieved by encoding （编码）and decoding（解码） messages.)语码模式语码模式( (解码过程解码过程): ): 认为交际是对信息的认为交际是对信息的解码和编码的过程。解码和编码的过程。lCommunication and understanding involve more than mere linguistic encoding and decoding.lThree main questions that the hearer of an utterance has to answer (the gap between sentence meaning and utterance interpretation):a)What did the speaker intend to say?b)What did the speaker intend to imply?c)What was the speakers intended attitude to imply?a)What did the speaker intend to say?(1) If you are looking for a good job,were offering a thousand a week.garden pathutterance: an utterance on which hearers quite systematically get thewrong interpretations first,and have to correct it.Grace: Saying is generally contrasted with implying,or implicating.Every utterance is seen as communicating a variety of propositions（判断）,some explicitly（直接地）,others implicitly（含蓄地）. b) What did the speaker intend to imply?Sometimes ,it is quite clear what the speaker intended to say,but less clear what he/she intended to imply.(2) I always treat other peoples money as if it were my own.implicature:the intended implications of an utterance.(some utterances have a few strong ,highly salient implicatures;others have a broader,less determinate range)(3) a. Peter:Does Viv play cricket well? b. Mary:He plays for the West Indies.(4) a. Peter:What will you do today? b. Mary:I dont feel too well.In either case,whether the implicatures are strong or weak,they cannot be discovered by linguistic decoding alone.c) What was the speakers intended attitude to imply?Sometimes ,it is clear what the speaker intended to say or imply,but less clear what his/her attitudeis to what he/she has said or implied.(5) I think it was when I first set eyes on his magnificent estate at Pemberley.(6) a. Peter:Is John a good cook? b. Mary:Hes English.What is communicated generally goes well beyond what is linguistically encoded.3.The Nature and Role of ContextlIt is obvious that context or background assumptions play a crucial role in answering these three main questions.关联论中的关联论中的语境语境语境语境是一种是一种心理建构体心理建构体（psychological construct），是），是构成听话人认知语境的一系列假设构成听话人认知语境的一系列假设构成听话人认知语境的一系列假设构成听话人认知语境的一系列假设。它不。它不仅包括交际时话语的上下文，即时的物质环境等具体的语境仅包括交际时话语的上下文，即时的物质环境等具体的语境因素，也包括一个人的知识因素，如已知的全部事实，假设，因素，也包括一个人的知识因素，如已知的全部事实，假设，信念以及一个人的认知能力。交际者通过经验或思维已经把信念以及一个人的认知能力。交际者通过经验或思维已经把有关的具体语境内在化，认知化了。有关的具体语境内在化，认知化了。关联论中的语境是关联论中的语境是“ “动态的概念动态的概念动态的概念动态的概念” ”（a fluid notion），它），它在交际的过程中得到不断的补充和扩大，但语境的选择，调在交际的过程中得到不断的补充和扩大，但语境的选择，调整与证实始终受关联原则的支配。整与证实始终受关联原则的支配。lSelection of an appropriate set of contextual assumptions is crucial to the understanding of (1)-(6) above.l语境的选择语境的选择选择处理话语最佳语境的过程就是选择处理话语最佳语境的过程就是寻求话语最寻求话语最佳关联的过程佳关联的过程。话语理解中的语境不仅包括话语理解中的语境不仅包括上文所表达和隐含上文所表达和隐含的信息的信息，还包括，还包括即时的情景因素即时的情景因素，以及与该旧，以及与该旧信息和新信息有关的所有信息和新信息有关的所有百科知识百科知识，这就要求，这就要求听话人根据即时情景对话语语境进行选择。听话人根据即时情景对话语语境进行选择。lAdd a further question to our list of questions that the hearer has to answer:d) What was the intended set of contextual assumptions?The problem of context selection is a genuine and serious one.(7)He has much in common with John McEnroe.We choose the minimal set of implications that would make the utterance worth listening to,and stop there.lThe hearers task is to choose ,from among this vast array of possible interpretations,the actual,intended one.lThe intended interpretations is not decoded but inferred,by a non-demonstrative inference process.to obey.lIn our book,a theory of overt communication and understanding based on this fundamental idea of Grices.Grice合作原合作原则 (co-operative principle)Maxim of RelationRelevanceBe relevant. Maxim of MannerBe ClearAvoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). Be orderly. Maxim of QualityBe Truthfula) Do not say what you believe to be false.b) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Maxim of Quantitya) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange). b) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. Grice语用学用学说与关与关联理理论的差异的差异 第一第一, Grice 过于于强调要遵守合作原要遵守合作原则诸准准则；第二第二, Grice 又又过于于强调违反准反准则的作用；的作用；第三第三, Grice 只只讲交交际话语中的中的“ 暗含暗含”(what was implicated ),不不讲交交际话语中的中的“明明说”(what was said ),但但Sperber 和和Wilson 却却对“明明说”给予同予同样的注意。的注意。4.Relevance TheorylRelevance theory is based on a few very simple assumptions:(a) every utterance has a variety of possible interpretations.(b) not all these interpretations occur to the hearer simultaneously.(c) hearers are equipped with a single.(d) human cognition is relevance-oriented.关联理论 关关联理理论试图找出以下找出以下问题的答案：的答案： 1.为什么交什么交际双方各自的双方各自的说话意意图会被会被对方方识别？ 2.为什么交什么交际双方配合得如此自然，既能双方配合得如此自然，既能产生生话语又能又能识别对方的方的话语？关关联理理论没有没有规则，也没有准，也没有准则需要遵守，它的需要遵守，它的形成基于几个十分形成基于几个十分简单的看法的看法:(a)(b)(c)(d).关关联理理论指出，理解指出，理解话语的的标准是人准是人类认知假知假设，而人而人类认知假知假设认为：人：人类认知事物知事物时总遵循着遵循着一一条条Sperber和和Wilson称之称之为关关联的原的原则，即根据与，即根据与之之关关联的信息来的信息来认知事物。知事物。lRelevance is defined in terms of contextual effect 语境效果语境效果 and processing effort 推理努力推理努力.l语境效果就是话语所提供的信息和语境之间的一种关系，它对描述关联是至关重要的。话语是否具有语境效果是关联的必要充分条件。lWe claim that.the greater the contextual effects,the greater the relevance.（8）It will rain in Paris tomorrow.lThe greater the processing effort needed to obtain these effects,the lower the relevance.（9）a. Its raining in Paris. b. Its raining in Paris and fish swim in the sea. la和b在没有必要提及鱼在海里游泳的语境假设中,具有相同的语境效果；但是b比a多一条信息，这条额外的信息需要付出额外的处理话语的努力，所以a比b的关联性强。(10) a. I have no brothers and sisters b. I have no siblings.lRelevance and understanding are two sides of a single coin. Conditions for Relevance Sperber和和Wilson把关把关联定定义为“假假假假设设P P同同一一一一系列系列系列系列语语境假境假境假境假设设之之间的关系的关系”。这也就是也就是说，假，假设在在特定特定语境中具有关境中具有关联性，必性，必须与与这个个语境有某种境有某种关关联。 他他们认为，当且，当且仅当一个假当一个假设在一定的在一定的语境中具境中具有某一有某一语境效果境效果时，这个假个假设在在这个个语境中才具境中才具有关有关联性。性。 Relevance: An assumption is relevant in a context if and only if it has some contextual effect in that context. Sperber和和Wilson又在又在“内容条件内容条件”（content condition）上）上对关关联性作了如下的定性作了如下的定义： 内容条件一：如果一个命内容条件一：如果一个命题在一个在一个语境假境假设中中的的语语境效果境效果境效果境效果大，那么大，那么这个命个命题在在这个个语境中就具有境中就具有关关联性。性。 内容条件二：如果一个命内容条件二：如果一个命题在一个在一个语境假境假设中中所需的所需的所需的所需的处处理努力理努力理努力理努力小，那么小，那么这个命个命题在在这个个语境中就境中就具有关具有关联性。性。Extend condition 1: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contextual effect in this context are large.Extend condition 2: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small. 因此，因此，话语所具有的所具有的语境效果境效果和和处理理话语时所作的所作的努力努力是确定关是确定关联性的两个因素。性的两个因素。(1) 语境效果与境效果与话语的关的关联性成性成正比关系正比关系: 在其他条件相同的在其他条件相同的情况下，情况下，语境效果越大，关境效果越大，关联性越性越强；(2) 处理理话语所付出的努力是所付出的努力是负面的因素，与关面的因素，与关联性成性成反比反比关系关系:在其他条件相同的情况下，在其他条件相同的情况下，处理理话语的努力越小，的努力越小，关关联性就越性就越强。关联性关联性Relevance语境效果语境效果Contextual Effect推理努力推理努力Processing Effort5.The Criterion of Consistency with the Principle of RelevancelAn utterance,on a given interpretation,is optimally relevant(最佳关联） if and only if:(a) it achieves enough contextual effects to be worth the hearers attention;(b) it puts the hearer to no gratuitous processing effort in achieving those effects.(11) Ladies and gentlemen,I have to tell you that the buildings on fire.关关联的原的原则 Principle of Relevance Sperber和和Wilson提出了最佳关提出了最佳关联设想和关想和关联原原则。最佳关最佳关联设想想： （1）发话者意欲向听者意欲向听话人人显映的假映的假设集集I，具，具有足有足够的关的关联，使听，使听话人人值得努力去得努力去处理理该明示明示的刺激信号。的刺激信号。 （2）这一明示刺激信号，是一明示刺激信号，是发话者者传递假假设集集I时所能运用的最大关所能运用的最大关联的信号。的信号。关关联原原则： 任何明示性的交任何明示性的交际行行为都意味着本交都意味着本交际行行为所所传递的假的假设，具有最佳关，具有最佳关联性。性。Presumption of Optimal Relevance：(a)The set of assumptions I which the communicator intends to make manifest to the addressee is relevant enough to make it worth the addressees while to process the ostensive stimulus.(b) The ostensive stimulus is the most relevant one the communicator could have used to communicate I.Principle of Relevance: Every act of ostensive（明晰的）communication communicates a presumption（推测） of its own optimal relevance. 关联的第一原则（认知原则）：人类认知倾向关联的第一原则（认知原则）：人类认知倾向于最大关联相吻合。于最大关联相吻合。 关联的第二原则（交际原则）：每一个明示的关联的第二原则（交际原则）：每一个明示的交际行为都应设想为它本身具有最佳关联。交际行为都应设想为它本身具有最佳关联。 最大关联最大关联(maximal relevance)是话语理解时是话语理解时付出尽可能小的努力而获得的最大语境效果。付出尽可能小的努力而获得的最大语境效果。 最佳关联最佳关联(optimal relevance)是话语理解时付是话语理解时付出有效的努力之后所获得的足够的语境效果。出有效的努力之后所获得的足够的语境效果。 Revised Principle of RelevancelAn utterance does not actually have to be optimally relevant.lAn utterance,on a given interpretation,is consistent with the principle of relevance if and only if the speaker might rationally have expected it to be optimally relevant to the hearer on that interpretation.6.Some Consequences of Relevance Theory(a) The first acceptable interpretation is the only acceptable interpretation.(12) George Bush is a crook.(13) In scene 10,when the police come in,the criminal makes a bolt for the door.(14)a: When the police come in,the criminal runs for the door. b: When the police come in,the criminal gets out his toolkit and constructs a door-bolt.(15) a.Peter: Would you like some coffee? b.Mary: Coffee would keep me awake.(16) Mary doesnt want to be kept awake.(17) Mary doesnt want any coffee.(18) Mary wants to stay awake.(19) Mary wants some coffee.(b) Extra effort implies extra effect.(22) John is a lion.(23) Bill is a donkey.(25) John is brave.(26) Bill is stupid.(27) John is brave in the way a lion is brave.(28) That was a stupid thing to do.(29) That was a stupid,stupid thing to do.关联理论的实践意义关联理论的实践意义 关联理论具有广泛的应用价值，它除了有指关联理论具有广泛的应用价值，它除了有指导人们消除歧义，确定指称意义等作用以外，导人们消除歧义，确定指称意义等作用以外，对收窄或丰富词语意义也有一定的启示；它可对收窄或丰富词语意义也有一定的启示；它可以对包括语态，时态与体，情态动词，助动词，以对包括语态，时态与体，情态动词，助动词，小品词，联系语以及状语结构等进行分析；也小品词，联系语以及状语结构等进行分析；也可以用来分析句子和语篇的某些文体特征。可以用来分析句子和语篇的某些文体特征。 在言语交际中，关联理论可以用来解释指称在言语交际中，关联理论可以用来解释指称结构和省略形式等。此外，关联理论对文学作结构和省略形式等。此外，关联理论对文学作品，传媒语篇，翻译等不同形式以及不同层次品，传媒语篇，翻译等不同形式以及不同层次的语篇都具有较强的解释力。的语篇都具有较强的解释力。关联理论的缺陷关联理论的缺陷（1 1）它没有足够重视）它没有足够重视“规约性规约性”对话语理解的作用，似乎过对话语理解的作用，似乎过分强调交际主体的创造性与主观能动性。常规性与创造性，分强调交际主体的创造性与主观能动性。常规性与创造性，主观能动性等在话语理解过程中到底是如何相互作用的，主观能动性等在话语理解过程中到底是如何相互作用的，它也没有具体作出解释。它也没有具体作出解释。（2 2）语境效果与为理解话语付出的努力是制约关联性的正反）语境效果与为理解话语付出的努力是制约关联性的正反两个因素。可是，关联论似乎又告诉我们，听话人要获取两个因素。可是，关联论似乎又告诉我们，听话人要获取话语所产生的语境效果决定他需付出多大程度的努力，语话语所产生的语境效果决定他需付出多大程度的努力，语境效果反过来又由努力的程度决定。这样，决定话语关联境效果反过来又由努力的程度决定。这样，决定话语关联性的语境效果与处理话语所付出的努力就陷入了难以自救性的语境效果与处理话语所付出的努力就陷入了难以自救的矛盾循环之中，二者究竟哪一个决定哪一个显得有些模的矛盾循环之中，二者究竟哪一个决定哪一个显得有些模糊。糊。（3 3）关联性只是根据语境效果和处理话语付出的努力这两个）关联性只是根据语境效果和处理话语付出的努力这两个因素去衡量，没有给出一个可以明确度量的标准。因素去衡量，没有给出一个可以明确度量的标准。Thank you!结束结束