社会研究方法双语教学课件Chapter 1 introduction lWhatissocialresearch?WayofknowingsocialrealitybydirectexperiencelDefinitionlThedifferencesbetween“socialresearch”and“社会调查研究“Functions or purposesof social researchlDescription(描述)Amajorpurposeofmanysocialscientificstudiesistodescribesituationsandevents.Theresearcherobservesandthendescribeswhatwasobserved.Sincescientificobservationsiscarefulanddeliberate,however,scientificdescriptionsaretypicallymoreaccurateandprecisethancasualdescriptions.(P73)Examplesl北京汽车市场调查农村居民收入差距Explanation(解释)lThesecondgeneralpurposesofsocialscientificresearchistoexplainthings.Reportingthevotingintentionsofanelectorateisadescriptiveactivity,butreportingwhysomepeopleplantovoteforcandidateAandothersforcandidateBisanexplanatoryactivity.Reportingwhysomecitieshavehighercrimeratesthanothersisacaseofexplanation,butsimplyreportingthedifferentcrimeratesisacaseofdescription.Prediction(预测)lForexample,thegoalofregressionanalysisisfindouttherelationshipbetweentwoormorevariables.2. Types of research methodslObjetctivedimensionA.Census(普查).lAnenumeration(列举)ofthecharacteristicsofsomepopulation(总体).Acensusisoftensimilartoasurvey,withthedifferencethatthecensuscollectsdatafromallmembersofthepopulationwhilethesurveyislimitedtoasample.B.B. Sampling survey (抽样调查)lCarefulprobabilitysamplingprovidesagroupofrespondentswhosecharacteristicsmaybetakentoreflectthoseofthelargerpopulation,andcarefullyconstructedstandardizedquestionnairesprovidedatainthesameformfromallrespondents.C. Case study (个案研究)lTakeonlyseveralmembersfromthepopulationandstudythemindetail.Purposive Dimensiondescriptivestudies(描述性研究)explanatorystudies(解释性研究) time dimension. lCross-sectionalStudy(横剖研究).Astudythatisbasedonobservationsrepresentingasinglepointintime.lLongitudinalStudy（纵贯研究）.Astudydesigninvolvingthecollectionofdataatdifferentpointsintime,ascontrastedwithacross-sectionalstudy. lLongitudinalstudiesaredesignedtopermitobservationsoveranextendedperiod.Threetypesoflongitudinalstudiesshouldbenotedhere.lTrend studies(趋势研究)arethosethatstudychangeswithinsomegeneralpopulationovertime.ExampleswouldbeacomparisonofU.S.Censusovertime,showinggrowthinthenationalpopulation,oraseriesofGallupPollsduringthecourseofanelectioncampaign,showingtrendsintherelativestrengthsandstandingofdifferentcandidates. lCohort Studies(同期群研究)examinemorespecificsubpopulations(cohorts)astheychangeovertime.Typically,acohortisanagegroup,suchasthosepeoplebornduringthe1920s,butitcanalsobebasedonsomeothertimegrouping,suchaspeopleattendingcollegeduringtheVietnamWar,peoplewhogotmarriedin1964,andsoforth. lAnexampleofcohortstudywouldbeaseriesofnationalsurveys,conductedperhapsevery10years,tostudytheeconomicattitudesofthecohortbornduringthedepressionoftheearly1930s.asampleofpersons20-25yearsofagemightbesurveyedin1960,andanothersampleofthose40-45yearsofagein1970.Althoughthespecificsetofpeoplestudiedineachofthosesurveyswouldbedifferent,eachsamplewouldrepresentthesurvivorsofthecohortbornbetween1930and1935. lPanel Studies(定组研究定组研究,追踪研究追踪研究)aresimilartotrendandcohortstudiesexceptthatthesamesetofpeopleisstudiedeachtime.Oneexamplewouldbeavotingstudyinwhichthesamesampleofvoterswasinterviewedeverymonthduringanelectioncampaignandaskedforwhomtheywouldintendedtovote.Suchastudywouldmakeitpossibletoanalyzeoveralltrendsinvoterpreferencesfordifferentcandidates,butitwouldhavetheaddedadvantageofshowingtheprecisepatternsofpersistenceandchangeinintentions. lForexample,atrendstudythatshowedthatCandidatesAandBeachhadexactlyhalfofthevotersonSeptemberfirstandonOctoberfirstaswellcouldindicatethatnoneoftheelectoratehadchangedvotingplans,thatallofthevotershadchangedtheirintentions,orsomethingbetween.ApanelstudywouldeliminatethisconfusionbyshowingwhatkindsofvotersswitchedfromAtoBandwhatkindsswitchedfromBtoA,aswellasotherfacts.Procedures of social researchlPreparatorystage(准备阶段)lDatacollectionstage(收集资料阶段)lAnalysisstage(分析阶段)lSummarystage(总结阶段)Chapter 2 research designChapter 2 research designl1.Choosearesearchprojecta)Howtochoosearesearchprojectlb)Factorsrelatingwithresearchprojectchoicec)Principlesregardingresearchprojectchoicel2.PreliminaryExplorationla)Literaturereviewlb)Filedobservationl3.ResearchProjectDesigna)Researchhypothesisb)Researchplan2.1 Literature Reviewl1.PurposesofLiteratureReviewToavoidredundantresearchandtrytomakenewcontributionsToprovidebasesforhypothesisTotakeotherresearchesasreferencesforyourresearchplanl2.HowtoReviewLiteratureSnowballmethod:accordingtothereferencesandnotesoftheexistingliteraturetolookformorerelatedliteratureElectronicresources2.2 Field ObservationlMethods:colloquia(座谈会）,interview,refertoliteraturelPurpose1:forquestionnairedesignlExample:howtomeasurepeasantfamilyincomeintothreelevels:“high”,“medium”and“low”lPurpose2:forhypothesislExample:EconomicdevelopmentImplementationofelectoralsystemVillagersparticipation3. Research Project Designl3.1ResearchHypothesisHypothesis:Anexpectationaboutthenatureofthingsderivedfromatheory.Functionsofhypothesis:lToguildaresearchlTorelatetheoreticalconceptswithempiricaldatalToexplorenewtheoreticalknowledgePrinciplesformakinghypothesislConsistentwithexistingtheorieslConsistentwithconfirmedfactslCanbeverifiedbyexperience3.2 Research Project DesignlPurposeslPopulationandobjectslSamplingmethodslMethodsofdatacollectionanddataanalysislOrganizationlBudgetandfacilitieslWages,travellingexpenses,expenseforcopyingandprintinglFacilities:camera,taperecorder,computerlTimetableChapter 3 Samplingl3.1IntroductiontoSamplingl1.Thehistoryofsamplingl2.Samplingconceptsandterminologyl3.2ProbabilitySampling(随机抽样）l1.Simplerandomsampling(SRS)简单随机抽样l2.Systematicsampling系统抽样l3.Stratifiedsampling分层抽样l4.Clustersampling整群抽样l5.Multi-stagesampling多段抽样l3.3Non-ProbabilitySampling（非随机抽样）l1.Purposiveorjudgmentsampling立意抽样l2.Quotasampling配额抽样l3.Snowballsampling滚雪球抽样3.1 Introduction to Sampling3.1 Introduction to Samplingl1.ThehistoryofsamplingPoliticalpollingbyLiteracy Digest In1920,Digesteditorsmailedpostcardstopeopleinsixstates,askingthemwhotheywereplanningtovoteforinthepresidentialcampaignbetweenWarrenHardingandJamesCox.Nameswereselectedforthepollfromtelephone directories and automobile registration lists.Basedonthepostcardssentback,theDigestcorrectlypredictedthatHardingwouldbeelected.Inelectionsthatfollowed,themagazineexpandedthesizeofitspoll,andmadecorrectpredictionsin1924,1928,and1932.In1936,basedontwomillionrespondentsanswers,theDigestpredictedthatRepublicancandidateAlfLandonwouldget57%ballotsandincumbentPresidentFranklinRooseveltwouldgetonly43%.Twoweekslater,votersgaveRooseveltathirdterminofficebythelargestlandslideinhistory,with61percentofthevote.Theproblemlayinthesamplingframeused:telephonesubscribersandautomobileowners.Suchasamplingdesignselectedadisproportionatelywealthypeople,especiallycomingonthetailendoftheworsteconomicdepressioninthenationhistory.3.1 Introduction to Samplingl(continued)lIncontrasttotheLiteracy Digest,GeorgeGallupcorrectlypredictedthatRooseveltwouldbeatLandon.Gallupssuccessin1936hingedonhisuseofquotasampling.lQuotasamplingisbasedonaknowledgeofthecharacteristicsofthepopulationbeingsampled:whatproportionaremen,whatproportionwomen,whatproportionsareofvariousincomes,ages,etc.Peopleareselectedtomatchthepopulationcharacteristics.3.1 Introduction to Sampling2. Sampling Concepts and Terminology 2. Sampling Concepts and Terminology (1)(1) i. 1.Element（研究单位）. An element is that unitaboutwhichinformationiscollectedandwhichprovidesthebasisofanalysis.Typically, in survey research, elements are people orcertaintypesofpeople.However,otherkindsofunitscanconstitutetheelementsforsocialresearch;families,socialclubs,orcorporationsmightbetheelementsofastudy.(Note:Elementsandunitsofanalysisareoftenthesameinagivenstudy,thoughtheformerreferstosampleselectionwhilethelatterreferstodataanalysis.)2. Sampling Concepts and Terminology (2)(2)l1.Population (总体). A population is the theoretically specifiedaggregationofstudyelements.For example, specifying the term “college students” would include aconsiderationoffull-timeandpart-timestudents,degreecandidatesandnon-degreecandidates,undergraduateandgraduatestudents,andsimilarissues.l2. Study Population（研究总体）. A study population is thataggregationofelementsfromwhichthesampleisactuallyselected.Asapracticalmatter,youareseldominapositiontoguaranteethateveryelement meeting the theoretical definitions laid down actually has achanceofbeingselectedinthesample.Evenwherelistsofelementsexistforsamplingpurposes,thelistsareusuallysomewhatincomplete.Somestudents are always omitted, inadvertently, from student roster. Sometelephonesubscribersrequestthattheirnamesandnumbersbeunlisted.Thestudypopulation,then,istheaggregationofelementsfromwhichthesampleisselected.2. Sampling Concepts and Terminology (3)(3)l3.SamplingUnit（抽样单位）.Asamplingunitisthatelementorsetofelementsconsideredforselectioninsomestageofsampling.In a simple, single-stage sample, the sampling units are the same as theelements. In more complex samples, however, different levels of samplingunitsmaybeemployed.Forexample,youmightselectasampleofcensusblocksinacity,thenselectasampleofhouseholdsontheselectedblocks,andfinallyselectasampleofadultsfromselectedhouseholds.l4.SamplingFrame（抽样框）.Asamplingframeistheactuallistofsamplingunitsfromwhichthesample,orsomestageofthesample,isselected.l5.ObservationUnit（观察单位）.Anobservationunit,orunitofdatacollection,isanelementsfromwhichinformationiscollected.Again,theunitofanalysisandunitofobservationareoftenthesametheindividual personbut that need not be the case. Thus the researcher mayinterview heads of households (the observation unit) to collect informationaboutallfamilymembersofthehouseholds(theunitsofanalysis).2. Sampling Concepts and Terminology (4)(4)l6. Variable（变量）. A variable is a set of mutually exclusiveattributes:sex,age,employmentstatus,andsoforth.l7.Parameter（参数值）.Aparameteristhesummarydescriptionofagivenvariableinapopulation.l8.Statistic（统计值）.Astatisticisthesummarydescriptionofagiven variable in a sample. Sample statistics are used to makeestimatesofpopulationparameters.l9.SamplingError（抽样误差）.Probabilitysamplingmethodsseldom,ifever,providestatisticsexactlyequaltotheparametersthattheyareusedtoestimate.Probabilitytheory,however,permitsustoestimatethedegreeoferrortobeexpectedforagivensampledesign.2. Sampling Concepts and Terminology (5)(5)l10.ConfidenceLevelsandConfidenceIntervals（显著性水平与置信区间）.We express the accuracy of our sample statistics interms of a level of confidence that the statistics fallwithinaspecifiedintervalfromtheparameter.Forexample,wemaysayweare95percentconfidentthatoursamplestatisticsarewithinplusorminus5percentagepointsofthepopulationparameter.3.2 Probability Sampling (1)(1)lSimpleRandomSampling(简单随机抽样).Atype of probability sample in which the unitscomposingapopulationareassignednumbers,asetofrandomnumbersisthengenerated,andtheunits having those numbers are included in thesample. Although probability theory and thecalculationsitprovidesassumethisbasicsamplingmethod,itisseldomusedforpracticalreasons.3.2 Probability Sampling (2)(2)lSystematicSampling(系统抽样).Atypeofprobabilitysample in which every kth unit in a list is selected forinclusion in the sample: e.g., every 25th student in thecollegedirectoryofstudents.Kiscomputedbydividingthesizeofthepopulationbythedesiredsamplesizeandiscalled the sampling interval. Within certain constraints,systematicsamplingisafunctionalequivalentofsimplerandomsamplingandusuallyeasiertodo.lSamplinginterval=populationsize/samplesizelsamplingratio=samplesize/populationsize 3.2 Probability Sampling (3)(3)Stratified sampling (分分层层抽抽样样): toorganizethepopulationintohomogeneoussubsets(withheterogeneity between subsets.) and to selecttheappropriatenumberofelementsfromeach.3.2 Probability Sampling (4)lClusterSampling(整群抽样).Amultistagesampleinwhichnaturalgroups(clusters)aresampledinitially,withthemembersofeachselectedgroupbeingsubsampledafterward.Forexample,youmightselectasampleofU.S.collegesanduniversitiesfromadirectory,getlistsofthestudentsatalltheselectedschools,thendrawsamplesofstudentsfromeach.3.3 Non-Probability Sampling (1)(1)lPurposiveorjudgmentalsampling(立意抽样).Atypeofnonprobabilitysamplinginwhichyouselecttheunitstobeobservedonthebasisofyourownjudgmentaboutwhichoneswillbethemostusefulorreprsentative.3.3 Non-Probability Sampling (2)(2)lQuota sampling (配额抽样). A type ofnon-probabilitysamplinginwhichunitsareselected into the sample on the basis ofprespecifiedcharacteristics,sothatthetotalsample will have the same distribution ofcharacteristicsasareassumedtoexistinthepopulationbeingstudied.3.3 Non-Probability Sampling (3)(3)lSnowballsampling(滚雪球抽样).Anon-probabilitysamplingmethodoftenemployed in filed research. Each personinterviewed may be asked to suggestadditionalpeopleforinterviewing.3.4 Factors influencing sample sizelA.populationsize样本规模lB.populationheterogeneity样本异质性lvariance(方差)lC.permitedsamplingerror允许抽样误差Chapter 4 Social Measurementl4.1OperationalizationandSocialMeasurementlA.OperationalizationofResearchProject（研究课题的操作化）lB.SocialMeasurement（社会测量）4.2LevelsofSocialMeasurementA.NominalMeasure（定类测量）B.OrdinalMeasure（定序测量）C.IntervalMeasure（定距测量）D.Ratiomeasure（定比测量）l4.3.ReliabilityandValiditylA.Reliability（信度）lB.Validity（效度）lC.Relationsbetweenreliabilityandvalidity4.1 Operationalization and Social MeasurementlA.OperationalizationofResearchProjecta.OperationaldefinitionofconceptlOperationaldefinitionadefinitionthatspellsoutpreciselyhowtheconceptwillbemeasured.Strictlyspeaking,anoperationaldefinitionisadescriptionofthe“operations”thatwillbeundertakeninmeasuringaconcept.b.ChoiceofindexeslExample:Economicdevelopment-annualincomepercapita;collectiveincomeIntelligence-Couplerelation-c.OperationalizationofhypothesislConcept:Industrialization-HumanrelationlIndex:industrialoutput-timesvisitingeachotherlphonesubscribersB. Social MeasurementlConceptualizationllNominaldefinitionllOperationaldefinitionlmeasurementsintherealworldlDefinition:in order to understand the nature, characteristics andconditionsoftheobjects,weallocatesomenumbersorsymbolstotheobjectsaccordingtosomeregulations.Thisprocessiscalledsocialmeasurement.lThreeelementsofsocialmeasurementObjectsNumberorsymbolsregulations4.2 Levels of Social MeasuremntlA.NominalMeasurelVariableswhoseattributeshaveonlythecharacteristicsofexhaustivenessandmutualexclusivenessarenominalvariables.Examplesofthesewouldbesex,religiousaffiliation,politicalpartyaffiliation,birthplace,collegemajor,andhaircolor.lB.OrdinalMeasurelVariableswhoseattributesmaybelogicallyrank-orderedareordinalmeasures.Thedifferentattributesrepresentrelativelymoreorlessofthevariable.Variables of this type are social class, conservatism, alienation,prejudice,andthelike.c. Interval MeasurelFor the attributes composing some variables, theactualdistanceseparatingthoseattributesdoeshavemeaning.Suchvariablesareintervalmeasures.Forthese,thelogicaldistancebetweenattributescanbeexpressedinmeaningfulstandardintervals.A physical science example would be the Fahrenheit or Celsiustemperaturescale.Thedifference,ordistance,between80degreesand90 degrees in the same that between 40 degrees and 50 degrees.However,80degreesFahrenheitisnottwiceashotas40degrees,sincethezeropointintheFahrenheitandCelsiusscalesarearbitrary;zerodegrees does not really mean lack of heat, nor does 30 degreesrepresent30degreeslessthannoheat.D. Ratio MeasureslIn ratio measures , the attributes composing a variable,besideshavingallthestructuralcharacteristicsmentionedabove,arebasedonatruezeropoint.Examplesfromsocialscientificresearchwouldincludeage,lengthofresidenceinagivenplace,numberoforganizationsbelongedto,number of times attending church during a particular period oftime,numberoftimesmarried,andnumberofArabfriends.Most of the social scientific variables meeting the minimumrequirementsforintervalmeasuresalsomeettherequirementsforratiomeasurements.4.3 Reliability and Validity Precision and accuracy are obviously important qualities inresearch measurement, and they probably need no furtherexplanation. When social scientists construct and evaluatemeasurements,however,theypayspecialattentiontotwotechnicalconsiderations:reliabilityandvalidity.lA.Reliability.Thatqualityofmeasurementmethodthatsuggeststhatthesamedatawouldhavebeencollectedeachtimeinrepeatedobservationsofthesamephenomenon.Re-measurementreliability（再测信度）Duplicatereliability（复本信度）Foldedreliability(折半信度）B. ValiditylValidityreferstotheextenttowhichanempiricalmeasureadequatelyreflectstherealmeaningoftheconceptunderconsideration.Criterion-related validity（准准则则效效度度） is based on someexternalcriterion.Content validity（内内容容效效度度） referstothedegreetowhichameasurecoverstherangeofmeaningsincludedwithintheconcept.Forexample,atextofmathematicalabilitycannotbelimitedtoaddition alone but would also need to cover subtraction,multiplication,division,andsoforth.Construct validity （构构造造效效度度）isbasedonthewayameasurerelatetoothervariableswithinasystemoftheoreticalrelationships.C. Relations between Reliability and Validityla.reliablebutnotvalidlb.validbutnotreliablelC.validandreliableChapter 5 Questionnairel5.1TypesandStructureofQuestionnairel5.2QuestionnaireConstructionl5.3AttitudinalScales5.1 Types and Formats of Questionnaire (1)(1)Questionnaire (问卷问卷):adocumentcontainingquestionsandothertypesofitemsdesignedtosolicitinformationappropriatetoanalysis.l1.TypesofQuestionnaireSelf-administeredquestionnaireandinterviewer-administeredquestionnaire(自填问卷与访问问卷)lQuestionnairesmaybecompletedbytherespondentsthemselvesorbyinterviewerswhoreadtheitemstorespondentsandrecordtheanswers.5.1 Types and Formats of Questionnaire (2)(2)lSelf-administeredquestionnaireMailedquestionnaireDistributedquestionnaire5.1 Types and Formats of Questionnaire (3)(3)l2.FormatsofquestionnairelitemsinaquestionnairelInstructionlQuestionsandanswersOpen-endedquestions(开放式问题)Close-endedquestions(封闭式问题)lCodes(编码)5.2 Questionnaire Constructionl1.QuestionsBlank-fillingquestions(填空式问题)lExample:Howoldareyou?_Multi-choicequestions(多项选择式问题)lExample:Marriedstatus1)nevermarried2)married3)divorced4)marriedagainafterdivorceMatrix questions (矩阵式问题)lExample:lHowsatisfiedareyouwiththefollowinglifedomains?1234RelationshipswithyourcolleaguesRelationshipswithyoursupervisorsLabortypeandintensityofyourjobPrestigeofyourjoblThenumbersonthecolumnsindicatethefollowing:1.Verysatisfied2.Satisfied3.Fairlysatisfied4.Somewhatunsatisfied5.VeryunsatisfiedContingency Questions (相倚问题)lAsurveyquestionthatisaskedonlyofsomerespondents,determinedbytheirresponsestosomeotherquestion.lExample:Areyoumarried?l1)Yes.Whendidyougetmarried?_l2)No.2. answerslPrinciplesExhaustivenesslExample:Whatisyourreligiousaffiliation?1)Christianity2)Buddhism3)IslamismMutualexclusivenesslExample:Whatisyouroccupation?1)Cadre2)worker3)driver4)doctorLevelsofmeasurement3. Guidelines for asking questionsl1.Makeitemsclearandshorter(使用简单语言和简短语句)l2.avoiddouble-barreledquestions(避免问题带有双重含义)l3.avoidbiaseditemsandterm(提问不带倾向性)lavoidgivinghintsforrespondentsl4.respondentsmustbecompetenttoanswers(不要问回答者不知道的问题)lavoidaskingquestionsbeyondrespondentsknowledge5.avoidnegativeitemsl5.OrderquestionsandlimitquestionnumberlBeginthequestionnairewiththemostinterestingandeasysetofquestionsl5.3 Scale Constructionl1.LikertScale(利克特量表或总和量表)lAtypeofcompositemeasuredevelopedbyRensisLikertinanattempttoimprovethelevelsofmeasurementinsocialresearchthroughtheuseofstandardizedresponsecategoriesinsurveyquestionnaires.Likert-itemsarethoseutilizingsuchresponsecategoriesasstronglyagree,agree,disagree,andstronglydisagree.Procedures of Likert Scale Designl1.listallquestionsl2.stipulatehowresponsesarescoredlForexample,assignascoreof5to“stronglyagree”forpositiveitemsandto“stronglydisagree”fornegativeitems.l3.pretestl4.evaluatequestionsanddeletequestionswithlowdistinguishability2. Guttman ScalelCharacteristics:lFirst,onlytwooptionsforeachitem.lSecond,eachitemwithdifferentdegreeofstrengthlProcedureslListallrelatedquestionslPretestandassignscoreslEvaluatequestionslRearrangequestions l1.企业较少出钱让员工参加学生,但鼓励员工自费参加学习l同意反对l2.企业愿出钱支持那些表现好并打算在本企业长期工作的员工参加与本职工作相关的学习同意反对l3.不管学习的内容是否与本职工作相关,企业都愿意在时间和经费上给予支持同意反对l4.对于与本职工作相关并且时间不长的学习,企业可以考虑在时间和经费方面给予一定的支持同意反对l5.企业不反对员工自费参加学习同意反对l6.对于与本职工作相关的学习,企业愿意在经费和时间上给予支持l同意反对l7.企业不反对员工在不影响工作的情况下参加与本职工作相关的学习l同意反对l8.在一般情况下企业愿出钱让员工参加花钱不多的学习l同意反对l9.企业反对员工参加任何形式的学习同意反对5.4 strengths and weaknesses of questionnaire methodl1.Strengths(问卷法的优点)GeneralizabilityAnonymitySuitableforquantitativeanalysisl2.Weaknesses(问卷法的缺点)LowreturnrateEducatedrespondentsDifficulttomonitorChapter 6 Interviewl6.1typesofinterviewl6.2proceduresandtechniquesforinterviewl6.3selectionandtrainingofinterviewers6.1 types of interviewInterview:adatacollectionmethodinwhichoneperson(aninterviewer)asksquestionsofanother(arespondent).1.Structuredinterview(结构式访问）lInterviewwithquestionnaireorstructuralquestions.-bigsample(incontrastwithnon-structuralinterview)大样本-superficialitems项目表面化-highreliability(incontrastwithself-administeredquestionnaire)信度较高-suitableforilliteraterespondents(适合不识字的调查对象）2. Unstructured interview (非结构式访问)lAnunstructuredinterviewisaninteractionbetweenaninterviewerandarespondentinwhichtheinterviewerhasageneralplanofinquirybutnotaspecificsetofquestionsthatmustbeaskedinparticularwordsandparticularorder.-withoutspecificsetofquestions-Moreflexible:Theanswersevokedbyyourinitialquestionsshouldshapeyoursubsequentones.-greaterdepth3. Colloquia (座谈会)CharacteristicsAppropriateforunderstandingevent,notfactsaboutindividualsLowgeneralizabilityParticipantsshouldbecompetenttoyourtopiclNumberofparticipantsforacolloquiumlInterviewershouldbegoodatpresidingoverthecolloquium6.2 procedures and techniques1.EntrystagelTobegininterview:officialcertificatesandinformalsocialtieslToreducetensionofrespondents:createaneasyandtrustatmospherelSolicitcooperationfromrespondents2.InterviewingstagelFocusonthetopic(围绕问题发问)lValue-free(价值中立)lExpression(表情控制)3.AccomplishstagelHowtorecordinterviewinformation:Recordonthespot(现场记录)recordafterward（事后记录）lLeavethefieldandreturn6.3 selection and training of interviewersl1.SelectinginterviewersSpecialqualificationslSexAgeEducationLocalitiesGeneralqualificationslSincerityandstaidness(诚实认真)lInterestsandability(兴趣与能力)lDiligence(勤奋)2. Training of interviewerslIntroductionbyorganizerResearchmethodsTheproject:goals,sample,andetc.lReadquestionnairelPilotinterviewChapter 7 Observationl1.Definitionandcategoriesl2.Participantobservationandstructuredobservationl3.Improvingobservation7.1 definition and categories(1)(1)l1.DefinitionObservation(观察法),alsocalledfieldresearch(田野研究),isasocialresearchmethodthatinvolvesthedirectobservationofsocialphenomenaintheirnaturalsettings(getdatabysensoryorgans,e.g.eyes,ears).7.1 definition and categories(2)(2)lCharacteristics1.withresearchplanandpurposes2.getbehavioraldata(non-oralinformation)3.Withthehelpofscientificfacilities4.Observewhatishappeninghereandnow7.1 definition and categories(3)(3)l2.CategorieslParticipantobservationv.s.non-participantobservation（参与观察与非参与观察）lStructuredobservationv.s.non-structuredobservation（结构式观察与非结构式观察）lDirectobservationv.s.indirectobservation（直接观察与间接观察）IndirectobservationAbrasedobjects（损蚀物）Accumulatedobjects（累积物）7.2 participant observation and structured observation(1)(1)l1.ParticipantobservationEnterfield（进入现场）cultivaterelationswithobjects（建立关系）Prepareobservationplan（准备观察计划）Observeandrecord（观察与记录）Leavefield（离开现场）7.2 participant observation and structured observation(2)(2)l2.StructuredobservationPlanobservationobjectsanddimensions（确定观察对象和内容）Operationalizationofobservationitems（将观察内容操作化）Gotofieldandobserve（到现场进行实地观察）analyzedataquantitatively（对观察记录进行统计整理和分析）3. Improving reliability and validity of observationFactorsinfluencingreliabilityandvalidityofobservationlHawthorneeffectlObserversknowledge,interests,experiencesandvalueslComplexityofsocialphenomenalLimitsofobservationmethod:bychanceImprovementslImproveobservationabilitylBetterorganizationlTakefulladvantagesofmodernfacilitiesChapter 8 Literature Methodl1.Literatureandliteraturemethodl2.Contentanalysisl3.Advantagesanddisadvantagesofliteraturemethod8.1 literature and literature method (1)(1)l1.LiteraturelThebodyofwrittenworkproducedbyscholarsorresearchersinagivenfield.ThreeelementsofliteratureldatalMedia:Thematerialonwhichdataandinstructionsarerecorded,e.g.,magneticdisk,papertape,floppydisk,magnetictape,punchcard,etc.lsymbols8.1 literature and literature method (2)(2)lCategories(1)WrittenliteraturelJournals,newspapers,publishedbooks;archives;diaries,letters,notebooksimageliteraturelFilmcopies,pictures,photos,videotapes,VCDsaudioliteraturelMusicdiscs,audiotapes8.1 literature and literature method (3)(3)lCategories(2)FormaldocumentsandarchivesofgovernmentalorgansDocumentsandarchivesofassociationsPersonalliteraturelLetters,diaries,memoirs(回忆录)andautobiographies.lCategories(3)Firsthandliteratureandsecondhandliterature8.1 literature and literature method (4)(4)l2.LiteraturemethodsCaseliteraturestudyv.s.ContentanalysislDifferenttypesofliterature:personalliteraturev.s.publishedliteraturelDifferentsamplesizeslDifferentanalysismethods8.2 content analysislQuantitativeanalysisofliteraturelProcedures1)Sampling(抽样)2)delimitatecategories(界定类别内容)3)chooserecordunits(选择记录单位)lWords,themes,characters,sentencesandparagraphs4)definecountingsystems(界定点算体系)lBinarycode;frequencies;spaces;intensityofstatementsl(二元编码;频数;篇幅;陈述强度)Example of content analysislTrend:Personalorientation-socialorientationPersonalorgroupacceptancelIndicator1:个人认可lIndicator2:集体认可lIndicator3:用数量表示认可HumanrelationlIndicator4:积极方面lIndicator5:消极方面lIndicator6:两者结合8.3 advantages and disadvantages of literature methodlAdvantagesWithoutlimitsoftimeandspaceNoimpactofresearcheronthesubjectofstudy(Hawthorneeffect)LowexpenditureslDisadvantagesWithbiasofliteratureauthorsInaccessible(especiallyforpersonalliterature)SamplingerrorChapter 9 Data Entry and Reductionl9.1datacheckingandentry1.Datachecking资料复核lIntegralitylConsistencylReliability:calculation,spot-check2.Datacoding数据编码3.Dataentry数据录入9.2 data reduction (1)(1)l1.Frequencydistribution次数分配lFrequency次数或频数(f)lCumulativefrequency累积次数(cf)Upwardcumulativefrequency向上累积次数Downwardcumulativefrequency向下累积次数受访者文化程度l9.2 data reduction (2)(2)l2.Groupingdata资料分组Interval组距Lowerlimit下限Upperlimit上限Midpoint组中值 9.2 data reduction (3)(3)l3.PlottingdataBar条形图Line线图Pie饼图Histogram直方图Bar 条形图 (discrete variable (discrete variable 离散变量）离散变量）Pie 饼图或圆瓣图Line 线图Histogram直方图(continuous variable (continuous variable 连续变量连续变量) )Chapter 10 statistical analysisl10.1descriptivestatistics描述统计Univariatedescriptivestatistics单变量描述统计Bivariatedescriptivestatistics双变量描述统计l10.2inferentialstatistics推论统计lSignsformathematicaloperationPlus+加Summation总和Minus减Multiply乘product积Divide除dividend被除数divisor除数quotient商Radicalsign根号Evolutionorextraction开方square平方Denominator数分母Numerator分子Formula公式equation方程10.1 descriptive statisticsl1.Univariateanalysis单变量描述统计MeasuresofCentraltendency集中量数lThephraseofmeasuresofcentraltendencyreferstothesetofmeasuresthatdealswithwhereonthescalethedistributioniscentered.Thethreemajormeasuresofcentraltendencyarethemode,median,andmean.The mode 众数lThemode(Mo)issimplythemostcommonscorethescoreobtainedfromthelargestnumberofsubjects.Thus,themodeisthevalueofXthatcorrespondstothehighestpointonthedistribution.The Median 中位数lThemedian(Mdn)isthepointthatcorrespondstothescorethatliesinthemiddleofthedistributionwhenthedataarearrangedinincreasingordecreasingnumericalorderinotherwords,itisthepointthatdividesthedistributioninhalf.Median examplelExamplelfortheumbers:3,5,7,8,15l7isthemedianForanevennumberofscoresl3,5,7,8,14,15lThemiddleofthedistributionishalfwaybetween7and8.Sothemedianis7.5.Medianlocation=(N+1)/2The Mean 平均数lThemean,themostcommonmeasureofcentraltendency,isthetotalofthescoresdividedbythenumberofscores.ThesamplemeanisusuallydesignatedasX(read“XBar”):X=X/N分组资料lForgroupeddatalX=fX/NMeasure of variability 离散趋势lVariabilityordispersionlTwodistributionsmayhavethesamemeanbutdifferentdegreesofdispersionofscoresaroundthosemeans.Inonedistribution,theaveragemayreflectthegenerallocationofmostofthescores.Intheotherdistribution,thescoresmaybedistributedoverawiderangeofvalues,andthe“average”maybesomesortofbadcompromise.lGroupA:68,69,70,71,72X1=70lGroupB:15,60,80,95,100X2=70lRange全距Therangeisameasureofdistancenamely,thedistancefromthelowesttothehighestscore.ForgroupA,therangeis(72-68)=4,forgroupBis(100-15)=85.lThevarianceorstandarddeviationl方差或标准差Samplevariance(S2)样本方差Populationvariance(2)总体方差(XiX)2=nThestandarddeviation(s)isthepositivesquarerootofthevariance.ForgroupA,(68-70)2+(69-70)2+(70-70)2+(71-70)2+(72-70)2S=5=1.41lThecoefficientofvariation离散系数thestandarddeviationdividedbythemeanCV=/XForgroupA,CV=1.41/70=2.1%ForgroupB,CV=30.8/70=44%l2.BivariatedescriptivestatisticsMeasuresofassociation相关分析lScatterdiagram散点图lRelationships:-strongrelationship-perfectrelationship-norelationship-negativerelationshipExamples:-weightandheightofrespondents-schoolingyearsofrespondentsandtheirfathersThepearsonproduct-momentcorrelationcoefficientlNXY(X)(Y)lr=lNX2(X)2NY2(Y)2l受教育年限与收入资料l121334146102lr=l(1219021462)(129901022)l=0.75l-regressionanalysis回归分析linearregressionY=bX+aY=thepredictedvalueb=theslopeoftheregressionlinea=theinterceptnXY-XYb=nX2-(X)2a=Y-bXlExampleEducationandincome121334146102b=0.741219021462a=146120.7410212=5.87Y=5.87+0.74Xl10.2InferentialStatisticsIntervalestimatewhenwehaveonespecificestimateofaparameter,wecallthisapoint estimates(点估计）.Therearealsointerval estimates(区间估计）,whichareattemptstosetlimitsthathaveahighprobabilityofencompassingthetrue(population)valueofthemean.1)levelofsignificance显著性水平2)standarderror标准误差lLevelofsignificance显著性水平Inthecontextoftestsofstatisticalsignificance,thedegreeoflikelihoodthatanobserved,empiricalrelationshipcouldbeattributabletosamplingerror.Threelevelsofsignificancearefrequentlyusedinresearchreports:.05,.01,and.001.Thesemean,respectively,thatthechancesofobtainingthemeasuredassociationasaresultofsamplingerrorare5/100,1/100,1/1000.confidencelevel置信度lStandarderror标准误standarddeviationofsamplemeans.SSSEX=nn=1nlIntervalestimateformean平均数的区间估计SxZ(1)n例:抽取某厂400工人为样本，调查得工人平均工资为645元，标准差为120元。如果置信度为0.95，问全厂职工月平均工资的置信区间？6451.96120/4006451.963650.88639.12lIntervalestimateofpercentage百分比的区间估计p(1p)pZ(1)n例:抽取某工厂80位青工调查,65%参加业余学习.请对总体百分比进行估计,可信度为95%.0.651.960.65(1-0.65)/800.651.960.05355%75%Chapter 10 statistical analysisl10.1descriptivestatistics描述统计Univariatedescriptivestatistics单变量描述统计Bivariatedescriptivestatistics双变量描述统计l10.2inferentialstatistics推论统计lSignsformathematicaloperationPlus+加Summation总和Minus减Multiply乘product积Divide除dividend被除数divisor除数quotient商Radicalsign根号Evolutionorextraction开方square平方Denominator数分母Numerator分子Formula公式equation方程10.1 descriptive statisticsl1.Univariateanalysis单变量描述统计MeasuresofCentraltendency集中量数lThephraseofmeasuresofcentraltendencyreferstothesetofmeasuresthatdealswithwhereonthescalethedistributioniscentered.Thethreemajormeasuresofcentraltendencyarethemode,median,andmean.The mode 众数lThemode(Mo)issimplythemostcommonscorethescoreobtainedfromthelargestnumberofsubjects.Thus,themodeisthevalueofXthatcorrespondstothehighestpointonthedistribution.The Median 中位数lThemedian(Mdn)isthepointthatcorrespondstothescorethatliesinthemiddleofthedistributionwhenthedataarearrangedinincreasingordecreasingnumericalorderinotherwords,itisthepointthatdividesthedistributioninhalf.Median examplelExamplelfortheumbers:3,5,7,8,15l7isthemedianForanevennumberofscoresl3,5,7,8,14,15lThemiddleofthedistributionishalfwaybetween7and8.Sothemedianis7.5.Medianlocation=(N+1)/2The Mean 平均数lThemean,themostcommonmeasureofcentraltendency,isthetotalofthescoresdividedbythenumberofscores.ThesamplemeanisusuallydesignatedasX(read“XBar”):X=X/N分组资料lForgroupeddatalX=fX/NMeasure of variability 离散趋势lVariabilityordispersionlTwodistributionsmayhavethesamemeanbutdifferentdegreesofdispersionofscoresaroundthosemeans.Inonedistribution,theaveragemayreflectthegenerallocationofmostofthescores.Intheotherdistribution,thescoresmaybedistributedoverawiderangeofvalues,andthe“average”maybesomesortofbadcompromise.lGroupA:68,69,70,71,72X1=70lGroupB:15,60,80,95,100X2=70lRange全距Therangeisameasureofdistancenamely,thedistancefromthelowesttothehighestscore.ForgroupA,therangeis(72-68)=4,forgroupBis(100-15)=85.lThevarianceorstandarddeviationl方差或标准差Samplevariance(S2)样本方差Populationvariance(2)总体方差(XiX)2=nThestandarddeviation(s)isthepositivesquarerootofthevariance.ForgroupA,(68-70)2+(69-70)2+(70-70)2+(71-70)2+(72-70)2S=5=1.41lThecoefficientofvariation离散系数thestandarddeviationdividedbythemeanCV=/XForgroupA,CV=1.41/70=2.1%ForgroupB,CV=30.8/70=44%l2.BivariatedescriptivestatisticsMeasuresofassociation相关分析lScatterdiagram散点图lRelationships:-strongrelationship-perfectrelationship-norelationship-negativerelationshipExamples:-weightandheightofrespondents-schoolingyearsofrespondentsandtheirfathersThepearsonproduct-momentcorrelationcoefficientlNXY(X)(Y)lr=lNX2(X)2NY2(Y)2l受教育年限与收入资料l121334146102lr=l(1219021462)(129901022)l=0.75l-regressionanalysis回归分析linearregressionY=bX+aY=thepredictedvalueb=theslopeoftheregressionlinea=theinterceptnXY-XYb=nX2-(X)2a=Y-bXlExampleEducationandincome121334146102b=0.741219021462a=146120.7410212=5.87Y=5.87+0.74Xl10.2InferentialStatisticsIntervalestimatewhenwehaveonespecificestimateofaparameter,wecallthisapoint estimates(点估计）.Therearealsointerval estimates(区间估计）,whichareattemptstosetlimitsthathaveahighprobabilityofencompassingthetrue(population)valueofthemean.1)levelofsignificance显著性水平2)standarderror标准误差lLevelofsignificance显著性水平Inthecontextoftestsofstatisticalsignificance,thedegreeoflikelihoodthatanobserved,empiricalrelationshipcouldbeattributabletosamplingerror.Threelevelsofsignificancearefrequentlyusedinresearchreports:.05,.01,and.001.Thesemean,respectively,thatthechancesofobtainingthemeasuredassociationasaresultofsamplingerrorare5/100,1/100,1/1000.confidencelevel置信度lStandarderror标准误standarddeviationofsamplemeans.SSSEX=nn=1nlIntervalestimateformean平均数的区间估计SxZ(1)n例:抽取某厂400工人为样本，调查得工人平均工资为645元，标准差为120元。如果置信度为0.95，问全厂职工月平均工资的置信区间？6451.96120/4006451.963650.88639.12lIntervalestimateofpercentage百分比的区间估计p(1p)pZ(1)n例:抽取某工厂80位青工调查,65%参加业余学习.请对总体百分比进行估计,可信度为95%.0.651.960.65(1-0.65)/800.651.960.05355%75%