Kants Moral Theory康德的道德理论A caseThe “learning experiment”:A case支持者：它是正当的Supporters: It was justifiable1.因为受试者没有被强迫参加试验，而是自愿的because their subjects had not been coerced but had volunteered and 2.从试验中得到了有用的信息 because useful information had been gained from the experiment. 反对者：Critics:1.The volunteers were not informed 志愿者不知情2.They had been used by the researchers for an experiment for which they had not consented. 他们在没有同意的情形下被研究者利用历史背景Historical background: Immanuel Kant什么使行为具有道德价值What gives an act moral worth?绝对命令The categorical imperative对康德道德理论的评价Evaluating Kants moral theory完全和不完全义务Perfect and imperfect duties康德道德理论的变体Variations on Kantian moral theoryHistorical background: Immanuel Kant我能知道什么What can I know? a new Copernican revolution我应该做什么What ought I do? moral philosophy道德形而上学基础Fundamental principles (or foundations) of the metaphysics of morals (1785)实践理性批判Critique of practical reason(1788)什么使一个行为具有道德价值What gives an act moral worth?反对后果主义Object to consequentialist:1.我们并不总是能够控制我们行为的后果，事情并不总是如我们所愿地发生发展 The consequences of our acts are not always in our control and things do not always turn out as we want.2.将道德作为产生某种事态（情形），例如快乐的经验，的手段，是本末倒置。似乎幸福是目的，道德是工具，人是手段。事实上，人是目的，人具有最高的内在的价值。To make morality a matter of producing certain states of affairs ,such as happy experience ,puts matters backward.What gives an act moral worth?1.人不是工具People ought not to be used, but ought to be regarded as having the highest intrinsic value. ( it is central to Kants ethics)2. 行为的动机Motive to do what is right. (what gives an act moral worth)What is the right motive?善良意志“good will”: only such a will is good unconditionally . Everything else needs a good will to make it good. 行动出于义务To act “out of duty” ,out of a concern and respect for the moral law .What is the right motive?To explain his views on the importance of a right motive（动机） or intention（意图）, Kant provides the example of a shopkeeper who does the right thing, who charges the customers a fair price and charges the same to all . But what is her motive? Kant discusses three possible motives: 自利天性义务What is the right thing to do?Motive act consequences动机行为后果What is the right thing to do?行为不错的标准：1.出于义务“out of duty” (have the right motive)2.按照义务“according to duty” (do what is right)What is the right thing to do?假言命令Hypothetical imperative ( if (or because ) I want X, then I ought to do Y. )绝对命令（定言命令）Categorical imperative ( moral obligation: unconditional or necessary )The categorical imperative第一种表述方式 The first form:act only on the maxim that you can will as a universal law你应该这样行为，使你行为所遵循的原则成为一条普遍的立法原理。（普遍化）第二种表述方式The second form:Always treat humanity , whether in your own person or that of another, never simply as a means but always at the same time as an end.对待人，无论是你自己还是别人，永远要当作目的而不仅仅是手段。（人是目的）Other forms其它表述方式We ought always to ask whether some action we are contemplating could become a universal law of nature. (relies on his views about nature as a system of everything that we experience as it is organized according to laws )We are to ask whether we could consider ourselves as the author of the moral practice that we are able to accept. We are both subject to the moral law and its author (stress autonomy)We ask whether the action we are contemplating would be fitting for and further or promote such a community “kingdom of ends” (amplifies the second form of the categorical imperative.)Evaluating Kants moral theory评价康德的道德理论积极价值Appealing:强调公平，逻辑上一贯，尊重人的自主性以及主张道德面前人人平等Its central aspects-fairness, consistency, treating persons as autonomous and morally equal beings. They are also key elements of a particular tradition in morality.Evaluating Kants moral theory讨论：1.道德义务的本质方面The nature of moral obligation.Moral obligation is real and strictly binding.(?)2.绝对命令的运用方面The application of the categorical imperative.Critics: (?)when using the first form of the categorical imperative there are many things that I could will as universal practices that would hardly seem to be moral obligations (such as write their name on the top of their test papers) (?)Respond:In some sense, Kants theory requires that we consider the possible consequences when universalizing some action. it is just like the rule utilitarianism ( must universalize) (?)Respond:the second form of the categorical imperative also has problems of application. In the concrete, it is not always easy to determine whether one is using a person ,for example, what is coercion and what is simply influence, or what is deception and what is not. (?)Respond:Evaluating Kants moral theory3.义务方面DutyDuty is whatever is the right thing to do.绝对主义？ Absolutism当两种义务相冲突时，（如讲真话和保存生命），该如何做，康德道德理论没有给出答案？They may not give adequate help in deciding what to do， when they seem to give us contradictory duties ,as in the example , both to tell the truth and preserve life. (?)Respond:Evaluating Kants moral theory4.道德面前人人平等方面Moral equality and impartialityKant: moral equality ; impartiality.Morality is grounded in the ways in which we are alike as persons rather than the ways in which we are different as individuals.道德植根于我们作为人是一样的，而不是植根于我们作为个体是不同的。所以任何人没有道德特权。Critics: (?)In what way does morality require that all persons be treated equally and in what way does it perhaps require that that different persons be treated differently?( equality and discrimination) 人的层次不同，是否应有不同的道德要求或期望？有的只要求做到底线，有的要求具有美德？It is too male- oriented in its focus on reason rather than emotion. (?)Respond:Perfect and imperfect duties完全义务和不完全义务完全义务是绝对的Perfect duties are absolute.不完全义务是灵活的 imperfect duties (meritorious duties)are more flexible.我们应该帮助别人（在力所能及的范围内）是完全义务（康德反对利己主义）；但是我们没有绝对义务牺牲自己的整个生命帮助别人。We should help others ( object egoism), but there is no absolute duty to give ones whole life to helping others.完全义务优先于不完全义务，例如，我们不能义剥夺别人权利的方式帮助别人Perfect duties will take precedence over imperfect ones such that we can not help some by violating the rights of others.Variations on Kantian moral theory罗斯W. D. Ross罗尔斯John Rawls.阅读书目康德：道德形而上学原理康德：实践理性批判罗尔斯：正义论