英文食品科技论文的特点英文食品科技论文的特点1一、文体结构一、文体结构1.标题（标题（title)2.摘要或提要（摘要或提要（abstract)3.引言、前言或介绍（引言、前言或介绍（introduction)4.材料和方法（材料和方法（materials and methods)5.结果和讨论（结果和讨论（results and discussion)6.结论（结论（conclusions)7.感谢（感谢（acknowledgement)、参考文献、参考文献（references)和附录和附录( appendix)21.标题标题(title)o标题部分除了论文的题目外，一般还包括作标题部分除了论文的题目外，一般还包括作者署名、单位或地址等。者署名、单位或地址等。o标题的特点是：主题突出、明确，结构简洁、标题的特点是：主题突出、明确，结构简洁、逻辑严谨。逻辑严谨。o使读者一见标题便知论文主旨和涉及的内容，使读者一见标题便知论文主旨和涉及的内容，吸引住目标读者。吸引住目标读者。3o标题一般首先提出中心词（往往以名词为主）标题一般首先提出中心词（往往以名词为主）。o中心词后附加修饰语，以后置定语为多。中心词后附加修饰语，以后置定语为多。o常常用一些纽带词，中文用常常用一些纽带词，中文用“对对”、“的的”、“和和”、“在在”等，而英语常介词、分词、形容等，而英语常介词、分词、形容词、不定式等词、不定式等4例：oThe effect of temperature on the storage properties of apple fruit温度对苹果贮藏品质的影响温度对苹果贮藏品质的影响oRegulation and control of recombinant DNA experimentation对对DNA重组试验的规定与控制重组试验的规定与控制影响冰淇淋质量的诸因素影响冰淇淋质量的诸因素Various factors influencing (affecting) the quality of ice cream5o标题的长短：不超过标题的长短：不超过12或或16个词，以个词，以8个个词为佳。词为佳。o为防止标题过长，应突出关键词，避免词语为防止标题过长，应突出关键词，避免词语重复，或者使用副标题。重复，或者使用副标题。6英文论文标题的要求英文论文标题的要求o格式格式1：所有单词的字母均大写，国内外许多学术：所有单词的字母均大写，国内外许多学术刊物、会议论文采用这种排版方式。刊物、会议论文采用这种排版方式。TECHNOLOGIES IN FRUIT STORAGE AND PROCESSINGo格式格式2：单词的头一个字母大写，冠词、介词和连：单词的头一个字母大写，冠词、介词和连词如不出现在句首不需要大写。词如不出现在句首不需要大写。A study of Assay Procedure fro Protein Concentrationo格式格式3:首字母大写，其余字母均小写。首字母大写，其余字母均小写。Gel filtration and affinity chromatography7作者署名和地址作者署名和地址o在英文标题之下在英文标题之下o署名按照对本研究所做贡献大小排列署名按照对本研究所做贡献大小排列o单位地址位于作者姓名之下，单位地址由小单位地址位于作者姓名之下，单位地址由小到大的顺序书写到大的顺序书写科室，所在单位，所在地（城市、省、国名），科室，所在单位，所在地（城市、省、国名），邮编邮编o在标题或署名之后加注在标题或署名之后加注“*”以表示说明，说以表示说明，说明内容置于标题所在页的底部，为题注明内容置于标题所在页的底部，为题注（footnotes)82.摘要或提要（摘要或提要（ abstract)o是文章的缩影或主旨要点是文章的缩影或主旨要点o是对文献内容的准确、扼要的表达，不加补充解释是对文献内容的准确、扼要的表达，不加补充解释和评论和评论o面对的读者群比整篇论文或专业学术刊物本身的读面对的读者群比整篇论文或专业学术刊物本身的读者群要大得多者群要大得多o有字数限制：有字数限制：150-300o以精练的语言介绍文章的目的、论点、实验结果、以精练的语言介绍文章的目的、论点、实验结果、结论和建议等。结论和建议等。o结构固定、内容简洁完整，应该让读者了解全文的结构固定、内容简洁完整，应该让读者了解全文的梗概，使其判定是否有必要阅读全文。梗概，使其判定是否有必要阅读全文。9概述（概述（summary)o与摘要很近，往往被看成是同义词。与摘要很近，往往被看成是同义词。Summary的内容充分而简洁，篇幅可以的内容充分而简洁，篇幅可以是一段也可能是数页。是一段也可能是数页。o一般独立成篇，可以位于正文之前，也可以一般独立成篇，可以位于正文之前，也可以作为论文的结尾。作为论文的结尾。10关键词（关键词（key words，keywords)o关键词作为关键词作为keywords index被列入文献情报的被列入文献情报的检索系统，有利于全文的检索和交流。检索系统，有利于全文的检索和交流。o一般一般4-6个，最少个，最少2个。个。o在论文中一般在摘要之后，正文之前，多用名词或在论文中一般在摘要之后，正文之前，多用名词或名词词组形式，不用动词形式。名词词组形式，不用动词形式。o关键词之间可以加逗号或分号，或加间隔进行分隔，关键词之间可以加逗号或分号，或加间隔进行分隔，最后一个关键词后面一般不加任何标点符号。最后一个关键词后面一般不加任何标点符号。Keywords: Apple physical properties storage analysisKey Words: Food, processing method, optimal control, quality113.引言、前言或介绍（引言、前言或介绍（introduciton)o包括题义、研究现状、对以往相关研究的评述和研包括题义、研究现状、对以往相关研究的评述和研究目的究目的o首先，介绍本研究课题的目的或假设，从理论和实首先，介绍本研究课题的目的或假设，从理论和实践上说明它的价值；践上说明它的价值；o然后，阐明研究背景，介绍或评述前人的相关研究然后，阐明研究背景，介绍或评述前人的相关研究情况；情况；o最后，阐明本研究要解决的问题。最后，阐明本研究要解决的问题。o常常说明文章各部分的组织结构。常常说明文章各部分的组织结构。o在文中是独立完整的一部分，篇幅可为一至数段。在文中是独立完整的一部分，篇幅可为一至数段。12o研究背景：以过去为基点写，指出就这一课研究背景：以过去为基点写，指出就这一课题进行过什么相关研究，有何结论，存在何题进行过什么相关研究，有何结论，存在何问题等。问题等。o一般采用过去时。一般采用过去时。o引言中有一段阐明本研究目的和基本内容的引言中有一段阐明本研究目的和基本内容的文字，通常使用一般过去式。文字，通常使用一般过去式。13常用句型常用句型Sb.tested sth. and they found .Sb.reported sth. and they observed.Sb.gave sth. and that indicating.Sb.carried out experiments and the result showed.Sb.conducted on sth.Sb. performed .Sb.made .例：Observations (investigations/studies/experiments) on .were carried out (made/ conducted/performed) by sb. who found that144.材料与方法（材料与方法（materials and methods)o包括实验条件、材料、设计或使用的方法包括实验条件、材料、设计或使用的方法o根据食品科技论文类型和研究内容的不同，根据食品科技论文类型和研究内容的不同，这个部分可以有不同的写法，也可以用不同这个部分可以有不同的写法，也可以用不同的标题，如的标题，如Experimental method; test and equipment; experimental procedure, description of experiment15(1)实验方法（实验方法（experimental method) 试验设计试验设计 type of experimental design 重复次数重复次数 number of replications 统计分析统计分析 statistical analysis(2)仪器（仪器（equipment) 实验方法中所用仪器，仪器名称，制造厂家实验方法中所用仪器，仪器名称，制造厂家（model, manufacturers name and address) 自己设计的仪器（自己设计的仪器（measurement set up)16(3)食品品质分析（食品品质分析（evaluation of food product)介绍研究对象（名称、数量、来源）介绍研究对象（名称、数量、来源）营养成分分析营养成分分析 nutrients analyzed微生物微生物 microbiological quality物理品质物理品质 physical quality化学品质化学品质 chemical quality感官评定感官评定 sensory quality毒性毒性 toxicological quality热学性质热学性质 thermal quality17o一般是先交代试验的时间、地点、材料、数理、条一般是先交代试验的时间、地点、材料、数理、条件、环境；件、环境；o然后描述实验的设计、基本过程和步骤；然后描述实验的设计、基本过程和步骤；o最后还要说明本试验的统计方法。最后还要说明本试验的统计方法。o偏理论模型的大富翁，要说明各参数、假设和理论偏理论模型的大富翁，要说明各参数、假设和理论模型，以便在后文中讨论。模型，以便在后文中讨论。o文章中包括不同的试验项目或不同的研究模型，可文章中包括不同的试验项目或不同的研究模型，可以再列小标题分别论述。以再列小标题分别论述。时态和语态方面，主要使用一般过去时和被动语态。时态和语态方面，主要使用一般过去时和被动语态。185.结果和讨论（结果和讨论（results and discussion)o篇幅占全文的一半或更多，大多附有图表。篇幅占全文的一半或更多，大多附有图表。o可分为两部分分别写可分为两部分分别写Results 和和Discussion，特别是结果和，特别是结果和讨论可以明显区分开的情况下。讨论可以明显区分开的情况下。o有时，在结果和讨论的最后就结束论文，因为在分析讨论本试有时，在结果和讨论的最后就结束论文，因为在分析讨论本试验或研究的各项结果时，结论就已经得出了。验或研究的各项结果时，结论就已经得出了。o针对文中不同的试验或不同的研究模型，可以在结果和讨论中针对文中不同的试验或不同的研究模型，可以在结果和讨论中加入小标题分别加以论述。加入小标题分别加以论述。o结果和讨论部分因为是客观地介绍实验结果及由此引发的讨论，结果和讨论部分因为是客观地介绍实验结果及由此引发的讨论，所以通常使用一般过去时，被动语态。所以通常使用一般过去时，被动语态。o在讨论中涉及本试验的特定内容时，应采用过去时叙述。在讨论中涉及本试验的特定内容时，应采用过去时叙述。o在判断或讨论中可以用一般现在时或一般将来时，可以用人格在判断或讨论中可以用一般现在时或一般将来时，可以用人格化的主语及主动语态句，以表明客观性以及作者的主观认识、化的主语及主动语态句，以表明客观性以及作者的主观认识、结论和见解。结论和见解。19oSoluble pectinFormation of soluble pectin is usually associated with apple softening,but higher concentrations of this material were found in the initial weight loss of fruit than in controls(Table 1). The final texture may reflect the balance of different proces promoting and inhibiting softening and this balance could vary from one experiment to another.20oPrediction of meat quality from robotic measurementsThis is summarized in Table 1,which shows how the optical data collected robotically at the six positions were correlated with meat quality. As expected, correlations with meat quality with fiber-optic reflectance tended to be strong at position 4 and 5. Two predictions are given from each quality attributer: r, with the wavelength used, and R, using up to two extra wavelengths.216.结论（结论（conclusions)o结论是对本文的论述给出清晰、明确的结论，结论结论是对本文的论述给出清晰、明确的结论，结论中可以包含必要的建议、文章内容的应用前景、结中可以包含必要的建议、文章内容的应用前景、结果和讨论所印证或引申出的问题等。果和讨论所印证或引申出的问题等。o结论应该全面、明确、合乎逻辑，但要突出论文的结论应该全面、明确、合乎逻辑，但要突出论文的发展，它可以让读者在此基础上进一步思考或做进发展，它可以让读者在此基础上进一步思考或做进一步研究。一步研究。o结论可以用一般现在时或一般将来时，因为它是从结论可以用一般现在时或一般将来时，因为它是从写文章的当时出发，而且叙述的可看成一般规律。写文章的当时出发，而且叙述的可看成一般规律。o结论中涉及的文中具体事实，通常用一般过去时或结论中涉及的文中具体事实，通常用一般过去时或现在完成时。现在完成时。22oThe results of the sonic test are promising, but further research is needed to refine the sonic method to improve the accuracy and make the test simpler and faster.oIt can be concluded that if the temperature was controlled between 0-5 oC, this variety of apple could be stored for 2 months. 237. 感谢（感谢（acknowledgements)、参考文献、参考文献（references)、附录（、附录（appendix)o感谢一般写在正文之后，向为本研究提供帮助、指感谢一般写在正文之后，向为本研究提供帮助、指导、资助的单位和个人表示致谢。导、资助的单位和个人表示致谢。AcknowledgementsThis work was funded by the U. K. Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council. The authors are indebted to Mr. G. E. Gale for his assistance in the design and construction of test equipment, and to Mr. S. Crook for assistance with statistical analysis24o参考文献列出文中所参考的资料，便宜于查看与本文论述或引参考文献列出文中所参考的资料，便宜于查看与本文论述或引用的内容直接相关的资料。用的内容直接相关的资料。参考文献的写法有两种，一种是按姓氏顺序排列，另一种是按出现参考文献的写法有两种，一种是按姓氏顺序排列，另一种是按出现顺序排列。顺序排列。参考文献内容：参考文献内容：引文作者姓名：姓（英、美人的引文作者姓名：姓（英、美人的last name)在前，名在后。在前，名在后。et al.：如果作者人名很多（一般大于：如果作者人名很多（一般大于5个）个）,可以在第一作者姓名可以在第一作者姓名之后用之后用et al. (拉丁语，拉丁语，et=and, al.=others)。书名（文章名）、出版社、年份书名（文章名）、出版社、年份如引用同一作者、同一年份几份如引用同一作者、同一年份几份资料，要在出版年份之后加资料，要在出版年份之后加a,b,以示区别。以示区别。Abbott, J. A. (1997a);Abbott J.A. (1997b)页数（页数（P. :page, PP.: pages)、期刊名称、卷、期、年代等。、期刊名称、卷、期、年代等。25o附录一般放在文章的最后（有时放在参考文附录一般放在文章的最后（有时放在参考文献之前），可以是论文中数学模型、数学公献之前），可以是论文中数学模型、数学公式、系统构造等的较为详细的说明或推导。式、系统构造等的较为详细的说明或推导。o如果论文中有很多符号和缩写（如果论文中有很多符号和缩写（symbols and abbreviations)，则可以把它们汇，则可以把它们汇总放在文章的开头或论文的结尾，以方便读总放在文章的开头或论文的结尾，以方便读者查阅。者查阅。26二、修辞特点二、修辞特点27用词方面：用词方面：o专业术语较多，一词一意，词义专一，能够专业术语较多，一词一意，词义专一，能够准确地表达科学含义；准确地表达科学含义；o许多词汇来源于希腊语和拉丁语（如果许多词汇来源于希腊语和拉丁语（如果altitudes源于拉丁语源于拉丁语altitudo)，前后前，前后前缀出现频率较高（如缀出现频率较高（如biosensor, biosynthesis, twofold)，同时文章中，同时文章中还大量使用缩写词（如还大量使用缩写词（如SSC: soluble solid contents)。28o用词方面：用词精确、结构简洁。文章中多用介词短语、分词用词方面：用词精确、结构简洁。文章中多用介词短语、分词短语、形容词短语、动词不定式短语等，使句子结构简洁而信短语、形容词短语、动词不定式短语等，使句子结构简洁而信息容量大。息容量大。o语法方面：被动语态，特别是施动者的被动语态句远比日常英语法方面：被动语态，特别是施动者的被动语态句远比日常英语广泛。语广泛。这是因为论文所要研究、报道的是科学事实本身，而不是做的人这是因为论文所要研究、报道的是科学事实本身，而不是做的人（施动者）。（施动者）。另外，被动语态表达准确、客观、不带感情色彩，这正是科技论文另外，被动语态表达准确、客观、不带感情色彩，这正是科技论文所需要的。所以它是一般科技文体的特征句型。所需要的。所以它是一般科技文体的特征句型。此外，为了表明作者对事物和现象的看法，或者对问题的探讨时，此外，为了表明作者对事物和现象的看法，或者对问题的探讨时，常常用虚拟婉转的，含有假定、设想条件的句子。常常用虚拟婉转的，含有假定、设想条件的句子。祈使句和祈使句和it句型也频繁使用。句型也频繁使用。29oIt could be controlled better if the optimal temperature and time combination has been found.oThe above equation would become equality if we assure the condition is frictionless.oTurn on the power and then put the sample into the machine.30o由于注重事实和逻辑推理，为了完整而充分由于注重事实和逻辑推理，为了完整而充分地说明问题，论文书写中会出现多个分句并地说明问题，论文书写中会出现多个分句并列或复合句中从句套从句的现象，特别是定列或复合句中从句套从句的现象，特别是定语从句，从而在文中出现关系复杂的长句。语从句，从而在文中出现关系复杂的长句。o为了避免这种现象，可采用数个短句来表达为了避免这种现象，可采用数个短句来表达一个特别长的复合句。一个特别长的复合句。31食品科技论文常用的时态多为过去时、现在时，食品科技论文常用的时态多为过去时、现在时，修辞手法比较单调，注重事实和逻辑，常借修辞手法比较单调，注重事实和逻辑，常借用图表、公式来表示概念和说明文章内容。用图表、公式来表示概念和说明文章内容。321.简洁精练的文字简洁精练的文字o科技论文是摆事实、讲道理，用客观的态度，使用科技论文是摆事实、讲道理，用客观的态度，使用准确、简练、朴素、生动的语言描述客观世界以及准确、简练、朴素、生动的语言描述客观世界以及论述作者的观点。论述作者的观点。o科技论文一般句子较长，有时一个句子长达百字，科技论文一般句子较长，有时一个句子长达百字，虽然可以借助介词、关系词、连接词把各成分连成虽然可以借助介词、关系词、连接词把各成分连成一个整句，使共通顺明了，但这种长句仍然会使读一个整句，使共通顺明了，但这种长句仍然会使读者颇费思考，不一目了然。者颇费思考，不一目了然。o除非必需，过长的句子还是分成几个短句为好除非必需，过长的句子还是分成几个短句为好（10-20个词）个词）33后者比前者更简洁、通用后者比前者更简洁、通用oThe problem is that-The problem isoUsed for drying purpose-for dryingoIt consists essentially of three different parts-It has three partsoIn spite of the fact that-ThoughoAccording to the experimental results in Figure 1 and 2, we can find the following phenomena-From Figure 1 and 2, we can find the following phenomena.34使用动名词、连词使用动名词、连词+过去分词、动词不定式、减少使用过去分词、动词不定式、减少使用it先行结构、先行结构、名词词组等能够精简结构名词词组等能够精简结构oAfter they were boiled, the potatoes were ready for the taste panels.-After being boiled, the potatoes were ready for the taste panels.oAs has been stated in section 1-As stated in section 1.oWhen it was heated-When heatedoWe stored the tomatoes under 20oC condition. Our objective was to find out the shelf life of tomatoes.-We stored the tomatoes under 20oC condition in order to find out the shelf-life of tomatoes.oIt can be seen that further research is needed-Obviously, further research is needed.oThis tester is designed to measure hardness of food and it is operated by hand-A hand-operated food hardness tester.352.连接手段连接手段o次序连接。在论文提到生理过程、加工过程、实验操作：次序连接。在论文提到生理过程、加工过程、实验操作：First(ly),then,second(ly), the next stage(step),subsequently, finally, followed by.o补加、类推、举例承接：补加、类推、举例承接：in addition, moreover, furthermore, similarly, for example,for instance.o解释和因果承接：解释和因果承接：this is to say, in other words, therefore, hence, thus, so that, consequently.o转折承接，用于前后对比：转折承接，用于前后对比：but, however, on the other hand, althougho强调承接，突出或强调某一方面：强调承接，突出或强调某一方面：indeed, above all, in fact, especially, in particularo可能承接，使上下文连接，前后呼应：可能承接，使上下文连接，前后呼应：likely, perhaps, probably, possibly o归纳承接，归纳上文，引出下文，使文章前后清晰、连贯：归纳承接，归纳上文，引出下文，使文章前后清晰、连贯：in conclusion, to sum up, to conclude, in general, to summarize36o使用合适的连接词，可以使内容有逻辑性和使用合适的连接词，可以使内容有逻辑性和科学性。连接词放在句首有强调作用，多数科学性。连接词放在句首有强调作用，多数情况下用在句中。情况下用在句中。o另外，要注意采用多种连接词，避免重复与另外，要注意采用多种连接词，避免重复与单调。单调。o用词要合理、准确，连接要自然。用词要合理、准确，连接要自然。37o文章中的一致、照应：关于人称的选择有两种理论。文章中的一致、照应：关于人称的选择有两种理论。o传统上，主张使用第三人称或无人称句，多用被动传统上，主张使用第三人称或无人称句，多用被动语态句子。理由是科学论述应当客观，不带有作者语态句子。理由是科学论述应当客观，不带有作者的感情和偏向。的感情和偏向。o现代派主张用第一、第二人称，把论文写亲切、自现代派主张用第一、第二人称，把论文写亲切、自然，认为传统写法太古板、曲折。然，认为传统写法太古板、曲折。o目前大多数食品科技英语文章是按照传统写法写作目前大多数食品科技英语文章是按照传统写法写作的。的。o注意人称照应，主谓一致。注意数的照应、比较照注意人称照应，主谓一致。注意数的照应、比较照应。应。38oMore water are needed for the hot water treatment of the vegetables. (are 应改为is)oThe new designed equipment is quite economical. (new 应该改为newly)393. 语气的强弱语气的强弱o科技论文要尽量写得生动、可读性强。科技论文要尽量写得生动、可读性强。o避免软弱无力，词句冗长。避免软弱无力，词句冗长。40o主动语态比被动语态生动：主动语态比被动语态生动：It will be seen from the figure that-The figure shows thato“形、声、动形、声、动”动词比动词比“存在存在”动词生动动词生动The higher temperature has good effects.-The higher temperature shows good effects.o省略不必要的关系代词省略不必要的关系代词The results that they obtained were impressing-The data they obtained were impressing.整篇文章要保持文体上的一致，避免在文中使用不规范的词句。整篇文章要保持文体上的一致，避免在文中使用不规范的词句。41其它技术和语言问题其它技术和语言问题o缩略词：一些在文章中反复出现的术语、团缩略词：一些在文章中反复出现的术语、团体或组织的名称：（体或组织的名称：（USDA, US Department of Agriculture; IFT, Institute of Food Technologists; DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid) o数字数字+度量衡单位词：度量衡单位词： 15ft (foot 或或feet) 50 rpm (revolutions per minute)oEtc.= et cetera = and others, i.e.=id est= that is42o公式：另一起一行，有序号。对式中符号或参数解公式：另一起一行，有序号。对式中符号或参数解释时，常用释时，常用where，相当于文中，式中，相当于文中，式中A simple analysis of the behavior of dissolved oxygen (DO) probes indicates that their response is related to the probe constant, k:K=.Where D=oxygen diffusivity in the membrane, and d=membrane thickness43o斜体词斜体词书名、篇名、期刊名书名、篇名、期刊名小标题小标题外来词外来词强调词强调词解释或定义解释或定义介绍的科技术语介绍的科技术语某物的命名，拉丁语学名中的属名、种名某物的命名，拉丁语学名中的属名、种名44食品科技论文的翻译和写作食品科技论文的翻译和写作45一、翻译理论和技巧一、翻译理论和技巧o信：忠实原文，正确表达原文意思；信：忠实原文，正确表达原文意思；o达：译文通顺、流畅；达：译文通顺、流畅；o雅：在前面两条的基础上，使译文生动、雅雅：在前面两条的基础上，使译文生动、雅致。致。461.翻译中的改换翻译中的改换o词义的改换词义的改换o词类、句子成分、修饰词的转换词类、句子成分、修饰词的转换o各类从句间的相互转换各类从句间的相互转换o肯定和否定的改换肯定和否定的改换47名词转动词：名词转动词：oOn completion of the heat treatment the skin color was immediately measured.一旦结束热处理，表皮的颜色立刻被测量。一旦结束热处理，表皮的颜色立刻被测量。热处理一结束，就测其表皮颜色。热处理一结束，就测其表皮颜色。48动词转名词：动词转名词：oThis product differs from the previous one by hardness.这个产品和前一产品的区别在于硬度。这个产品和前一产品的区别在于硬度。这个产品与产一产品的硬度不同。这个产品与产一产品的硬度不同。49o语态转换：被动转换成主动。语态转换：被动转换成主动。测定完成了，分为。，称为。，与。相。测定完成了，分为。，称为。，与。相。，加以。，旨在等。在英文中改为。，加以。，旨在等。在英文中改为被动语态。被动语态。The samples were divided into three groups. Figure 1 is linked to Table 2.The experiment was carried to prove the theory.50句子成分转换，主语转补语：句子成分转换，主语转补语：oMuch has been done on the high temperature processing of food products.关于高温对食品的处理已经研究得很多了。关于高温对食品的处理已经研究得很多了。有关食品高温处理的研究已有很多。有关食品高温处理的研究已有很多。512.翻译中的增减、重复翻译中的增减、重复o词的增加：中文中的词的增加：中文中的“和和”可以用来连接两词，可以用来连接两词，但不能连接两个分句；英语中的但不能连接两个分句；英语中的“and”可以可以在上述两场合应用。在上述两场合应用。Potatoes were put into boiled water with 5g of NaCl，and boiled for 10minutes.把土豆放入沸水中，放入盐把土豆放入沸水中，放入盐5克，加热克，加热10分钟分钟水沸腾后，放入土豆和水沸腾后，放入土豆和5克，继续煮沸克，继续煮沸10分钟。分钟。52o句子逻辑不清楚时，可以在译文中需要加词句子逻辑不清楚时，可以在译文中需要加词。5 毫克/千克处理组，颜色很好。In the treatment with 5 mg/kg, the fruit showed better surface color.Most mRNAs in bacteria are unstable with half-lives of 2-4 minutes at 50OC。在细菌细胞内，大多数在细菌细胞内，大多数mRNAs是不稳定的，它们的是不稳定的，它们的半衰期在半衰期在50oC下是下是2-4分钟。分钟。大多数细胞大多数细胞mNRAs不稳定，其在不稳定，其在50oC下的半衰期是下的半衰期是2-4 minutes.53o加入背景解释，否则由于文化、生活背景差异难以加入背景解释，否则由于文化、生活背景差异难以理解。理解。酸菜是东北人喜食的一种食品，它可以在合适的条件酸菜是东北人喜食的一种食品，它可以在合适的条件下保存数月。下保存数月。People in the northeast of China are fond of eating a kind of pickled cabbage, which is preserved in big earthen jars and the cabbage can be stored for several months under proper storage conditions.54o词的减少词的减少Previous studies indicated that sonic transmission could be applied to determine food quality.过去的过去的一些一些研究工作曾研究工作曾证明证明，声波传导可以用来检测，声波传导可以用来检测食品质量。食品质量。影响水果贮藏的因素包括内因和外因两个方面。影响水果贮藏的因素包括内因和外因两个方面。Fruit storage qualities are affected by the internal and external factors.55中文的中文的“进行研究进行研究”、“加以利用加以利用”、“有所报道有所报道”、“做了说明做了说明”等类似结构译成英语时，可等类似结构译成英语时，可略去结构动词，将动物名词译成为谓语动词，略去结构动词，将动物名词译成为谓语动词，多用被动语态形式。多用被动语态形式。The pH meter should be calibrated on the day it is used.pH计应该在使用的当天进行校正。计应该在使用的当天进行校正。56o汉语中常用重复表示强调，而在英语中则可汉语中常用重复表示强调，而在英语中则可以减译。以减译。物质是由分子组成的，分子又是由原子组成的。物质是由分子组成的，分子又是由原子组成的。All mater consists of molecules, and molecules of atoms.573.时间、条件、原因、让步关系的译法时间、条件、原因、让步关系的译法o时间关系：在.之时,在.之前,在.之后,到.为止等.翻译时，可译成时间状语从句，用when, as, before, after等引导。也可译成介词短语：at that time, at the beginning of the experiment, in five hours, within three hours, previous to the heating, upon the arrival of the samples58Higher firmness can be obtained only if the optimal processing time and temperature are selected.只有选择最优的处理温度和时间，才能获得较只有选择最优的处理温度和时间，才能获得较高的硬度。高的硬度。只有处理温度和时间达到最优水平时，硬度才只有处理温度和时间达到最优水平时，硬度才能达到较高值。能达到较高值。59o其它时间关系：限制时every time, whenever, by the time; 紧接时as soon as, once;延续时since, till。The puncture test was carried out as soon as the pork meat was boiled for 10 minutes at 100oC。将猪肉在100OC下煮制10分钟后，立刻做穿透实验。The processing was stopped till the bacteria reached target number.细菌数达到目标值时，过程停止。60o条件关系译法：译成条件状语。条件可分为真实条条件关系译法：译成条件状语。条件可分为真实条件和虚拟条件两种。件和虚拟条件两种。The body will not benefit from the nutrients in the food if it is not eaten.食品如果不被吃掉，其营养就不会被人体吸收。食品如果不被吃掉，其营养就不会被人体吸收。 If we do not control the processing conditions, some abnormal phenomena might occur.如果我们不控制处理条件，一些不正常的现象就会发如果我们不控制处理条件，一些不正常的现象就会发生。生。61o原因关系的译法：译成原因状语从句、介词原因关系的译法：译成原因状语从句、介词短语、分词短语、定语从句或其他结构。短语、分词短语、定语从句或其他结构。o从原因的意义、语气的强弱来看，从原因的意义、语气的强弱来看，because 最强，最强，since 次之，次之，as又次之，又次之，for语气最弱。语气最弱。oBecause 表示原因和理由时一般放在主句表示原因和理由时一般放在主句之后。之后。For 作作“因为因为”解释时，不能放在句解释时，不能放在句首。首。62The fuel must be finished, for the engine stopped. 燃料肯定用完了，因数发动机停了。燃料肯定用完了，因数发动机停了。Since displacement has direction, velocity also has direction.因为位移有方向，所以速度也有方向。因为位移有方向，所以速度也有方向。As heat makes things move, it is a form of energy.既然热可以使物质运动，它也是一种能量形式。既然热可以使物质运动，它也是一种能量形式。63o表示原因的其它词汇：owing to , on account of, due to.64o让步关系：指先退让一步，承认事实或现象，然后让步关系：指先退让一步，承认事实或现象，然后转入主句，摆脱从句中所述情况，语气显得有所加转入主句，摆脱从句中所述情况，语气显得有所加强。强。可以译成让步状语从句、介词短语等。可以译成让步状语从句、介词短语等。Although the apple varieties were different, the effects of surface coating were almost the same.虽然苹果种类不同，但表面涂膜的效果基本一致。虽然苹果种类不同，但表面涂膜的效果基本一致。Friction is often useful on food transportation lines despite its disadvantages.虽然摩擦有不利的一面，它在食品运输线上往往是有虽然摩擦有不利的一面，它在食品运输线上往往是有用的。用的。654.长句及复杂句的翻译长句及复杂句的翻译o主语从句：主语从句：有从属连词有从属连词that,whether, if;连接代词连接代词what,which,sho,whose；连接副词连接副词when,where,why,how等引导的等引导的主语从句，一般采用顺译法，把主语从句译主语从句，一般采用顺译法，把主语从句译在句首。在句首。66oThat the techniques of high pressure processing is widely applied to food production is known to all of us.高压技术广泛应用于食品生产，这是我们大家高压技术广泛应用于食品生产，这是我们大家都知道的。都知道的。oWhether this experiment could prove it is still a question.这个试验能否证明它，这还是个问题。这个试验能否证明它，这还是个问题。67o表语从句：顺译法。表语从句：顺译法。The relevant characteristics of these microorganisms are that they should be non-pathogenic, easy to maintain and cheap to grow.这些微生物的相关特性是：无致病性，易于维这些微生物的相关特性是：无致病性，易于维护，培养成本低。护，培养成本低。68o宾语从句：顺译法宾语从句：顺译法From the evaporation of water we know that liquids can turn into gases under certain conditions.从水的蒸发现象可以得知，液体在一定的条件从水的蒸发现象可以得知，液体在一定的条件下可以转化成气体。下可以转化成气体。69o同位语从句同位语从句The thermostat is based on the fact that different materials have different coefficients of expansion.各种金属的膨胀系统不同，这一事实是恒温器各种金属的膨胀系统不同，这一事实是恒温器的基本原理。的基本原理。70o定语从句：The species that accepts electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction is referred to as the oxidizing agent.Table 1 lists some microorganisms which have been reported to be metabolically able to carry out the biodegradation of some of these compounds.Upon special circumstances the streamlines of a surface of discontinuity become free streamlines, which are streamlines along which the pressure is constant.The basis principle of continuous culture is applicable to any scale of operation, especially in the form of the chemostat, which has been the most successful type on the laboratory scale.71o状语从句：时间、地点、条件、让步、行为、状语从句：时间、地点、条件、让步、行为、原因、目的、结果、比较等。可以译在句首，原因、目的、结果、比较等。可以译在句首，或采用转换译法译为并列句，或者主从句互或采用转换译法译为并列句，或者主从句互相转换。相转换。If a stress lies well within the elastic limit, it can be removed and repeated as soon as it desired without causing rupture.72oThe food technologist can usually recognize fats when he sees them because they are quite different both in their physical properties and in their chemical composition from the other two main food constituents, carbohydrate and protein.73oComputer control is the current by-word in fermentation technology and will soon reach the point where you dare not admit that your fermenters are not coupled to a computer; unfortunately, amidst the improvements this brings, we are beginning to see cases of the old dogma instruments prevent creative thinking.74oIt is possible, particularly in the case of an empty fermenter, that a vessel under vacuum could be deformed by the external air pressure, but the main reason for avoiding pressure below atmospheric within the fermenter is that the non-sterile air of environment could be drawn through any small leak in the welded seams of the vessel or pipeline, or through joints or valves.75英文食品科技文章写作的一般方英文食品科技文章写作的一般方法和应注意的问题法和应注意的问题767778一、前言的写法一、前言的写法o写作时应该考虑到文章的连接过渡手段和内写作时应该考虑到文章的连接过渡手段和内容的衔接照应，学会使用一些常用结构句型容的衔接照应，学会使用一些常用结构句型和表达方式。和表达方式。o由于论文内容和论题的不同，前言部分各有由于论文内容和论题的不同，前言部分各有侧重。侧重。79前言的主要内容前言的主要内容o阐述论文的目的、宗旨、和中心论题阐述论文的目的、宗旨、和中心论题o综述前人在本领域内所做的工作、发现以及综述前人在本领域内所做的工作、发现以及与本论文内容的关系与本论文内容的关系o介绍必要的背景知识介绍必要的背景知识o探讨本课题的研究价值和意义探讨本课题的研究价值和意义o介绍本论文的研究手段、数据和资料来源等介绍本论文的研究手段、数据和资料来源等o介绍正文的框架结构介绍正文的框架结构80(1)目的与意图目的与意图o指出目的的中文基本句子结构为：本文的目指出目的的中文基本句子结构为：本文的目的是的是.;.;本文旨在本文旨在.o常用的英文句型有：常用的英文句型有： Our task (job/mission/etc.)in/ of this article (paper is to本文的任务是本文的任务是.) The purpose (objective/goal/aim/etc.)of this study (research) is to ( (本文的目的是本文的目的是)81o表示意图时，中文常用表示意图时，中文常用“在本文中我们试图在本文中我们试图”;“”;“本文试图。）本文试图。）o常用英文句型常用英文句型 In this paper we attempt (intend/desire/hope/ etc.) to (establish a model for .) In this work (thesis/research/article/etc.) we aim at examining the evidence for 82oThe specific objective were the following:a.to determine the effect of processing temperature to b.to find out the optimal combination of heating time and temperature83o限制讨论焦点、范围的写法限制讨论焦点、范围的写法: :This study deals mainly with .The emphasis of this paper is put on.It is that is worth discussing.84(2)课题的价值和意义课题的价值和意义ois(are)interesting(importance/valuable/etc.)fromtheviewpointthat.oSupposethecompoundwithdesiredpropertiescanbedesigned,thentherewillbevariousadvantagesfromtechnologicalandcommercialpointofview.oIfthesequenceofDNAcanberestructured,thenobviouspossibilitiescanbefoundintheproductionofnewspecies.85(3)前人的工作和成果前人的工作和成果o在进行综述时，引用的资料一定要准确列出在进行综述时，引用的资料一定要准确列出作者、发表日期以及相关论文的名称或书名作者、发表日期以及相关论文的名称或书名（如果论文参考文献中已详细列出这些内容，（如果论文参考文献中已详细列出这些内容，则可在括号中给出序号），并且简要介绍其则可在括号中给出序号），并且简要介绍其结果、观点、发现，可对其工作加以简短的结果、观点、发现，可对其工作加以简短的评论或与本论文加以对比。评论或与本论文加以对比。86o阐述前人的发现、观点、结论、推断、假设阐述前人的发现、观点、结论、推断、假设等常用的英语句型：等常用的英语句型：reported in his study thatfound (concluded/assumed/point out/discovered/etc.)that.A study bydetermined (worked out/ figured out/pointed out) those factors that87o对研究现状的看法或评价对研究现状的看法或评价Research on has been insufficient;However, the detailed study of the hardness by acoustic method has been limited to only few of agricultural material with most attention paid to engineering materials.88o表示有待解决问题，中文常用表示有待解决问题，中文常用“有待解决的有待解决的问题是。问题是。”，相应的英文句子：，相应的英文句子：The problems (that remain) to be solved areThe main problem seems to beThe largely unsolved problems are89Application of response surface methodology in medium optimization for spore production of Coniothyrium minitans in solid-state fermentationoIn recent years, with the environmental contamination caused by the excessive use of chemical pesticides becoming worse and worse, substitution of biopesticides for chemical pesticides to control plant pests and diseases has received increasing interest. oThe fungus Coniothyrium minitans is a potential biopesticide against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, a widespread soil-born plant pathogen affecting more than 360 plant species such as oilseed rape, celery, lettuce, beans and potatoes, etc. (Campbell 1947; Whipps et al. 1991; Whipps & Gerlagh1992; Boland & Hall 1994; Roger et al. 1998).90oFor the commercial application of this biopesticide, large numbers of spores or conidia are required, and solid-state fermentation (SSF) is a cost-effective system for the sporulation of C. minitans (McQuilken & Whipps 1995; McQuilken et al. 1997; McQuilken & Whipps 1997). Several researches on spore production of C. minitans by SSF have been carried out on defined culture media (Oostra et al. 1998; Ooijkas et al. 1998, 1999). oAlthough the use of defined media with an inert carrier could give a good reproducibility, it was relatively expensive and very difficult to be scaled up in the way of SSF. In our research, wheat bran was chosen as a cost-effective basal medium for the spore production. oAlthough previous work has given satisfactory results, the effects of additional nutrients on the enhancement of the quantity of spores are not clear. Determination of the optimal cultivation conditions for the conidia production of C. minitans is also very important for commercial practice, especially for the decrease of mass production cost.91oConventionally, fermentation medium is optimized with the one-variable-at-a-time method, in which all variables but one is held at a constant level, and then the optimum level of the testing variable is determined.oAlthough this method is simple, it is laborious and time consuming when there are many factors to be determined.oMoreover, it works if, and only if there is no interaction between variables.92oResponse surface methodology (RSM) is a powerful and efficient mathematical approach widely applied in the optimization of fermentation process, e.g. media components on enzyme production (Adinarayana & Ellaiah 2002; Park et al. 2002; Suamant et al. 2002), production of other metabolites (Zhang et al. 1996;Sunitha et al. 1998; Sadhukhan et al. 1999; Hujanen et al. 2001), spore production (Yu et al. 1997) and biomass production optimization (Lhomme & Roux 1991). oIt can give information about the interaction between variables, provide information necessary for design and process optimization, and give multiple responses at the same time.93oThe present work was aimed at optimization of medium components, which have been found to play a very important role in enhancing the sporulation of fungus (Larroche 1996; Ooijkas et al. 1999), with the aid of RSM. oIn the preliminary step of optimization, six carbon sources, five inorganic nitrogen sources and six organic nitrogen sources were evaluated to determine optimal carbon and nitrogen source. Tohen, a PlackettBurman design was used to identify which components of the media had significant effects on spore production.oSubsequently, a central composite design was employed to optimize the factors, which had significant influence on spore production. oThe results were analyzed by response surface analysis.94二、正文的写法二、正文的写法o根据文章内容的需要采用各种不同的写作方根据文章内容的需要采用各种不同的写作方式展开论述。式展开论述。o可以是论证某一命题、观点、假设，可以是论证某一命题、观点、假设，o或描述某一实验方法、过程、结果，或描述某一实验方法、过程、结果，o或说明某事物的特点、功能、规律等。或说明某事物的特点、功能、规律等。95类型一：从实验得出结论，并加以讨论。类型一：从实验得出结论，并加以讨论。o往往是根据目的，设计并做实验，对方法、往往是根据目的，设计并做实验，对方法、材料、过程、结果加以描述和讨论，论证是材料、过程、结果加以描述和讨论，论证是否达到目的。否达到目的。类型二：对已有模型或公式，验证它们的正确性。类型二：对已有模型或公式，验证它们的正确性。96（1 1）定义和描述）定义和描述o描述一些物体的外观、结构、原理、过程。描述一些物体的外观、结构、原理、过程。o定义的写法按结构可分为一般定义、特指定定义的写法按结构可分为一般定义、特指定义和扩展定义。义和扩展定义。97o一般定义（一般定义（general defination):一则完一则完整的定义包括术语（整的定义包括术语（term)、动词、类别、动词、类别（class)差别（差别（distinguishing characteristics)98方式方式1：被下定义的事物（：被下定义的事物（name)+动词动词+类别类别（class,n.)+特征（特征（characteristics)oNutrition is the science that deals with the effects of food on the body, or the way the body uses food for optimal health.oAn enzyme is a protein, which can increase the efficiency of a biochemical reaction and is generally specific for that reaction.99o方式方式2：类别（：类别（class)+特征特征（characteristics)+动词动词+事物（事物（name)oThe process, through which water is lost from a plant primarily in the form of vapor, is known as transpiration(蒸腾作用）蒸腾作用）.100特指定义：下定义时关注的是特定的种类。特指定义：下定义时关注的是特定的种类。如化合物中的某种特别的化合物，溶液中某种特如化合物中的某种特别的化合物，溶液中某种特别的溶液等。别的溶液等。oTT（修饰语（修饰语+ +名词）名词）+is/are+is/are+类别类别+ +特征特征 Inorganiccompoundsarecompoundsnotformingthesubstanceoflivingbodies.Asupersaturatedsolutionisasolutionwhichcontainsmoresolutethanisrequiredtosaturateit.101扩展定义：定语可以是一句，也可以用两扩展定义：定语可以是一句，也可以用两个或更多的句子表明定义扩展。个或更多的句子表明定义扩展。o扩展定义可用举例、对比等手法加以补充说明，更扩展定义可用举例、对比等手法加以补充说明，更好地说明事物。好地说明事物。o一般先指出一般先指出“某某就是某某就是”，然后在此基础上进行，然后在此基础上进行扩展。扩展。Photosynthesis, which occurs in all land plants and many water plants, is a food-manufacturing process upon which all living things depend. The word is made up of two terms-photo, meaning light, and synthesis, in chemistry meaning the combination of two or more simple elements into a complex chemical compound.102o描述（描述（description)description)是指描写与传述兼有的一是指描写与传述兼有的一种写作方式，在科技论文中经常用到。种写作方式，在科技论文中经常用到。o例如，描写实验过程、机械设备的构造和运例如，描写实验过程、机械设备的构造和运转程序、物体性状等。转程序、物体性状等。o写作时注意客观性，注意细节与概括的有机写作时注意客观性，注意细节与概括的有机组合，不必每一种都详细描述。组合，不必每一种都详细描述。103（2）试验与比较的写法）试验与比较的写法o与时间有关的以步骤为主线的写法：与时间有关的以步骤为主线的写法：starts (begins/comments/etc.) at , and continues untilThe process has major steps associated with it. First. Second. Third. The final results are.The main steps in are(a).;(b).;(c)104试验目的的常用语句：试验目的的常用语句：The purpose (aim/object/objective) of this research is to.Experiments on animals (fruits/food) were made (carried out/performed/undertaken/started/initiated) in order to determine (establish/measure/obtain/reveal)Measurements using this technique were (have been) made to determine (test/check/elucidate/answer the question whether)105表示试验结果的句型：表示试验结果的句型：oThe experiments reported here showed (have shown/demonstrated / indicated/ suggested) a correlation betweenoOur experimental results support(ed)/ confirm(ed) the assumption (hyphothesis/ evidence) that.oThese experiments failed to provide (show/ demonstrate) any correlation between (changes in/ increase in)oThe highest (lowest/best/80%) yield (injury/control) was obtained (came from/ caused) the treatment of .oThe yield (injury/ control )was highest with the treatment of .106表示结论的句型：表示结论的句型：oFrom the experiment one can conclude that.oThe problem requires further research (study/investigation/work) in this area.107比较的写作技巧：比较的写作技巧：（1）整体与整体的比较。先全面介绍）整体与整体的比较。先全面介绍A，然后，然后全面全面B。一般在要比较的两事物可比点比较明显和广泛一般在要比较的两事物可比点比较明显和广泛时使用这种方法。时使用这种方法。通常包括：主题句；讨论通常包括：主题句；讨论A；转折（；转折（on the other hand/on the contrary/on the other side);讨论讨论B；结论句；结论句108（2 2）部分对部分的比较。）部分对部分的比较。一般是先将双方的第一点进行比较，然后第二、一般是先将双方的第一点进行比较，然后第二、第三第三各点比较。各点比较。常用于比较双方相比点较多且要具体比较的情常用于比较双方相比点较多且要具体比较的情况。况。句子组成往往是开头结尾分别是主题句和结论句子组成往往是开头结尾分别是主题句和结论句，每一点比较时用合适的词语转折或过渡。句，每一点比较时用合适的词语转折或过渡。109（3 3）异同的比较。）异同的比较。先列出比较双方的相同点（或相异点），然后先列出比较双方的相同点（或相异点），然后列出其相异点（或相同点），后一部分往往列出其相异点（或相同点），后一部分往往是作者希望强调的重点。是作者希望强调的重点。110Materials and methodsoMicroorganism and inoculum preparation Coniothyrium minitans (CBS 14896) was used in this study. A spore suspension was obtained as follows:C. minitans was grown on an isolated potato dextrose agar (PDA) in Petri dishes at 20 C for 7 days. The conidia were harvested from the surface by adding 0.85% (w/v) sterile saline solution and scraping with a sterile spatula. The spore suspension obtained was counted by using a Neubauer counting chamber, adjusted to approximately 106 spores ml-1. The spore suspension was used to inoculate the subsequent fermentation immediately. C. minitans was routinely maintainedon PDA slants at 4 C by regular sub-cultivation (no longer than 3 months).111oSolid-state fermentationWheat and wheat bran were purchased from local market and used as the solid substrates in the experiments.All fermentation substrates were autoclaved at 121oC for 20 min. The experiments were performed in 250-ml Erlenmeyer flask with 5 g of autoclaved substrate,covered with a cotton plug. All fermentations were carried out at 20 oC for 7 days under various conditions as described in the following parts of this paper. To protect the substrate from drying out, a metal plate filled with water was placed in the incubator to maintain the relative humidity at ca. 0.98 inside the incubator.112oAssessment of conidia yieldA 5 g sample was ground in a mortar and then mixed with 100 ml distilled water containing 0.1% (v/v) Tween 80 in a laboratory blender for 2 min at the maximum speed to separate the spores from the substrate thoroughly.Spore suspension was obtained after this step, and the spore suspension was diluted appropriately to a proper density that could be identified under the counting conditions. The spores were counted by using a haemocytometer under 400 magnification in a bright field microscope. Spore yield was expressed as spores per g initial dry matter (IDM). The results were the means of duplicate determination of two independent samples.113Experimental designs and data analysisoDetermination of optimal carbon and nitrogen sources To select the suitable carbon and nitrogen source, in the preliminary step of optimization, six carbon sources (starch, dextrin, glucose, maltose, galactose and sucrose), six organic nitrogen sources (yeast extract, corn steep liquor, beef extract, arginine, peptone and glycine) and five inorganic nitrogen sources (ammonium nitrate, ammonium chloride, urea, ammonium sulphate and sodium nitrate) were evaluated (Tables 13). These nutrients were respectively added into the flasks with wheat bran as basal medium. The initial moisture content of the media was adjusted to 40%. After sterilization and cooling to ambient temperature, 5 ml inoculum was inoculated in the flasks. The final moisture content then was maintained at 140%. The spore production of C. minitans was calculated after 7 days of incubation at 20 oC.1141151161171.PlackettBurman design2.In many cases, there are a large number of factors, which needed to be identified for their importance to the dependent variable of interest. 3.The most intuitive approach would be to vary those factors in a full factorial design, that is, to try all possible combinations of settings. 4.Full factorial designs require 2N (N denotes numbers of factors) experiments. 5.This would work fine, except that the number of necessary runs in the experiment (observations) will increase geometrically.6.In our case, seven variables have to be examined, it requires 27(128) experiments, which is a very large number and time-consuming.118oPlackettBurman design is a very useful tool used to screen n variables in just n+1 number of experiments (Plackett & Burman 1946; Rama et al. 1999; Ghanem et al. 2000). oThere will be a tremendous decrease in total experiments. In this part, the selected carbon (soluble starch) and nitrogen sources (corn steep liquor and urea) were further optimized together with other four variables:KH2PO4, CaCl2 2H2O, MgCl2 6H2O and trace elements. oThe design was shown in Table 4. The design matrix (Table 4) was developed using an SAS package (version 8.01).oEach variable was set at two levels, that is, high level and low level. oThe high level of each variable was set far enough from the low level to identify which ingredients of the media have significant influence on the spore production. oThe trace elements stock solution consisted of (g -1): EDTA 1, ZnSO4 7H2O 0.2, FeSO4 7H2O 0.5, Na2MoO4 2H2O 0.02, uSO4 5H2O 0.02, Co-Cl2 6H2O 0.04 and MnCl2 4H2O 0.1.119120oCentral composite designThe CCD is one of response surface methodologies (Chakravarti & Sahia 2002). After the identification ofthe components affecting the spore production significantly,a CCD was adopted to optimize the major variables (soluble starch, urea and KH2PO4), which were selected through PlackettBurman design.A 23 full factorial central composite experimental design with six star points (=1.285), six replicates at the centre points and resulting in a total of 20 experiments was used to investigate the three chosen variables of the medium for the spore production of C. minitans by SSF. 121The experiment was designed by using the SAS package, version 8.01. The central composite design was presented in Table 5. The experiments were performed in duplicate and the mean values were taken for the analysis.A second order polynomial, Equation (1), which includes all interaction terms, was used to calculate the predicted response.122123owhere Y represents response variable, b0 is the interception coefficient, bi, coefficient of the linear effect, bii, the coefficient of quadratic effect and bij, the coefficient of interaction effect. Where xi and xj denote the coded levels of variable Xi and Xj investigated in experiments.oThe variable Xi was coded as xi according to the Equation (2):124owhere xi is (dimensionless) coded value of the variable Xi, X0 is the real value of Xi at the center point (zero) level, and the DXi is the step change value.oMedia consisting of 5 g wheat bran as a basal medium from the same batch, was dispensed into a 250-ml Erlenmeyer flask and supplemented with the nutrients for optimization. oThe spore production of C.minitans was expressed in natural logarithm value. oAn SAS package, version 8.01, was used for multiple regression analysis of the experimental data obtained.oThe F-test was employed to evaluate the statistical significance of the polynomial.oThe multiple coefficients of correlation R and the determination coefficient of correlation R2 were calculated to evaluate the performance of the regression equation.125(3)图表、公式的制作与说明图表、公式的制作与说明o图形：直观、形象图形：直观、形象o表格：更精确、数字比较简明清楚。表格：更精确、数字比较简明清楚。o表（表（tables)：包括表的名称与顺序、表格标题、栏：包括表的名称与顺序、表格标题、栏标题、脚注等。脚注在表下小一号字，第二页列出各标题、脚注等。脚注在表下小一号字，第二页列出各栏标题，在表右上方注明栏标题，在表右上方注明“Table 1(continued)o图（图（figures)：包括名称与顺序、图标题、坐标、：包括名称与顺序、图标题、坐标、坐标说明和单位。如果是示意图、装置图，则应该在坐标说明和单位。如果是示意图、装置图，则应该在图上表明各部分的名称。图上表明各部分的名称。o各种绘图和图片的名称可用各种绘图和图片的名称可用figure(s),可缩写为可缩写为Fig(s)。图标题在图下，与图和后面的正文各隔开。图标题在图下，与图和后面的正文各隔开一行。一行。o图表注意：统计分析、标准差范围的标注等。图表注意：统计分析、标准差范围的标注等。126o图表的标题：不完整的句子或短语图表的标题：不完整的句子或短语Firmness of different varieties of tomatoesObserved data of evaporation, distillation and drying processEffect of temperature on acid compositionRelationships between A and BSchematic representation of the measurement set up127图表的说明图表的说明o图表的说明应该突出重点，明确差异，简明扼要。图表的说明应该突出重点，明确差异，简明扼要。o图表中不重要的数据或现象可以不加说明。图表中不重要的数据或现象可以不加说明。o对支持论文论点或需要强调的差异加以重点说明。对支持论文论点或需要强调的差异加以重点说明。o语言要简洁，否则读者抓不住重点。语言要简洁，否则读者抓不住重点。o在语言时态方面，如果图表没有特定时间而泛指一在语言时态方面，如果图表没有特定时间而泛指一般情况时，可以用一般现在时。般情况时，可以用一般现在时。o如果叙述的是过去特定时间的情况，说明时用一般如果叙述的是过去特定时间的情况，说明时用一般过去时。过去时。o如果图表中是不同时间的数据或发现，则解说也要如果图表中是不同时间的数据或发现，则解说也要根据具体情况使用不同的时态。根据具体情况使用不同的时态。128对所制作的图表本身的说明、解释、看法对所制作的图表本身的说明、解释、看法通常使用一般现在时态。通常使用一般现在时态。oFigures in table 1 are significantly different compare with those in table 2.129在论文正文叙述中，为了表达图表中的内在论文正文叙述中，为了表达图表中的内容，常用一些习惯的常用句型。容，常用一些习惯的常用句型。oAs (is) shown in Table 2,.oWe can find in Figure 1 thatoAs can be seen from the figure on page 12oFigure 2 summarizes.ois listed (presented/illustrated/ summarized/ shown/ etc. ) in table 5.130(4)(4)数量的表示数量的表示（1）概括数量（）概括数量（General quantity)“数量数量“：一般可数的可用：一般可数的可用number,不可数的用不可数的用amount, quantity, volume等。等。“大量大量”：作定语或表语，用：作定语或表语，用numerous, vast, many, much, ample等。等。“大量大量”“小量小量”“适量适量”：a large/great /considerable/sufficient number of 131(2)尺寸尺寸The pipe is 30 meters long.The pipe has a length of 30 meters.The length of this pipe is 30 meters.The pipe weighs 30 grams.132(3)数量的修饰数量的修饰表确切数字时，用表确切数字时，用exactly, just, neither more nor less等；等；表平均时，用表平均时，用average,mean等；等；表单位数时，用表单位数时，用per, every, each.133oWe take the mean value of three measurements as the temperature value.oA method can make 2 times more products per minute than method B.oThe fruits were stored in a chamber where the temperature was 31 oCoThe total output of meat increased by 10%.oThe test was done every other day.134(4)数的增减数的增减英语中的英语中的times可以表示可以表示“倍倍”、“次次”、和、和“乘乘”。three times：三乘以：三乘以；是；是的三倍的三倍数字表示增减意义时，要注意它是表示净增减数字表示增减意义时，要注意它是表示净增减数还是包括基数在内的总数的增减结果。数还是包括基数在内的总数的增减结果。135oA is three times longer than B(A是是B的确的确3倍长，倍长，A比比B长长2倍。）倍。）oB is three times shorter than A(B是是A的的1/3长。长。）oA is doubled (A 增加一倍，即增加一倍，即A是原来的是原来的2倍）倍）oA is three more than C (A比比C多多3个。）个。）oA is increased by five percent (A 增加了增加了5%。）。）oThe processing temperature is as high as 100oC.(加工温度高达加工温度高达100oC）oThe capability of duck production decreased to 78%(鸭生产能力降到鸭生产能力降到78%)。oMakers of beer and soft-drink containers in the U.S. produce 300 million aluminum beverage cans a day, 100 billion of them every year. （美国的啤酒罐和软饮料罐制造商每天（美国的啤酒罐和软饮料罐制造商每天生产生产3亿个铝制饮料罐，每年可生产亿个铝制饮料罐，每年可生产1千亿个。）千亿个。）136Results and discussionoDetermination of optimal carbon and nitrogen sourcesoIn the preliminary step of optimization, the selected nutrients were added to wheat bran separately. Compared with the control, the supplementary nutrient could really increase spore number of C. minitans (Tables 13).oSoluble starch, dextrin, glucose, maltose, galactose, and sucrose were examined to select a suitable carbon source. As can be seen from Table 1, of the six carbon sources investigated, soluble starch and dextrin were relatively favourable to the spore production of C. minitans. However, glucose gave the poorest result. It may be caused by hydrolysis of starch to glucose and the rate is very slow compared with that of glucose uptake (Ooijkas et al. 1998). The influence of various nitrogen sources on the spore production of C. minitans is presented in Tables 2 and 3, corn steep liquor and urea were found to be the best organic and inorganic nitrogen sources. It has also been reported that urea was a kind of preferred inorganic nitrogen source for the sporulation of C. minitans.137oPlackettBurman designoA PlackettBurman design was performed when the suitable carbon and nitrogen source supplemented had been determined. From Table 6, it can be seen that with the increase in the concentration of soluble starch, MgCl2 ?6H2O and corn steep liquor all have positive effects on spore production. An increase in the levels of urea, KH2PO4, CaCl2 ?2H2O, or trace elements have negative effects on spore production. With the help of relative ranking of Ex,i, soluble starch, urea and KH2PO4 within the tested limits were selected for further optimization, which had the most significant effects on spore production.oThe positive effects of starch were, maybe, caused by the requirement of a large quantity of substrate to synthesize spores. Starch was a preferred substrate to synthesize macromolecules (e.g. carbohydrates), which was related to sporulation and germination. Therefore, high starch concentrations would lead to higher spore production, which agreed with the results of Ooijkaas et al. (1999).oUrea at high concentration would negatively enhance spore production of C. minitans. This result coincided with the cases of some other fungi (Smith & Galbraith 1971). Low urea level was more advantageous than high urea level for spore production. McQuilken et al. (1997) reported that the sporulation of C. minitans is inhabited at low initial pH. It is possible that the high concentration of KH2PO4 could cause acidification of the culture, resulting in low spore production.oThe PlackettBurman design was proved to be a powerful tool to determine the effects of medium constituents on spore production of C. minitans rapidly. However the optimal concentrations of medium components that significantly affect spore production could not be obtained. Further work needed to be done to find out this information.138oCentral composite designoThis is a very useful tool to determine the optimal level of medium constituents and their interaction. Based on the PlackettBurman design, where soluble starch, urea and KH2PO4 were selected for their significant effects on the spore production, a central composite was used for further optimization. The concentrations of those major nutrients tested were presented in Table 5. Other nutrients concentrations were set at their centre point tested in the PlackettBurman design. Spore count after 7 days cultivation could reach 1.04 *1010 spores per g IDM.oRegression analysis of log-transformed experimental data was performed by an SAS package to obtain the following second-order polynomial, which accounts for the natural logarithm of the spore production.139140141142143144145146147三、结论的写法三、结论的写法o在对试验结果、产品研发、工艺流程等加以在对试验结果、产品研发、工艺流程等加以分析讨论后，应该给出明确清晰的结论，结分析讨论后，应该给出明确清晰的结论，结论中也可以给出建议。论中也可以给出建议。o结论部分一般加标题结论部分一般加标题conclusionconclusion，也有的不，也有的不加结论标题，而在加结论标题，而在results and discussionresults and discussion中加以论述，得出结论。中加以论述，得出结论。o结论可以直接提出作者的结论，也可以说明结论可以直接提出作者的结论，也可以说明前人的工作结论，然后指出作者的结论，这前人的工作结论，然后指出作者的结论，这样可以加以对比，加强结论的说服力。样可以加以对比，加强结论的说服力。148oThe progress in microbial modeling has been impressive, and models becoming a standard research tool and a valuable aid in evaluating and designing food processing. However, it is not yet possible to rely solely on models to determine the safety of foods and processing systems.oOur results suggest that the pH level, processing temperature and time are of practical importance.oThe experimental results obtained in this research are in general agreement with the results obtained by Bruce et al (2000) who established a high-pressure processing technique for milk.自己的结论可以用一般现在时，但与其他方法、他人的结自己的结论可以用一般现在时，但与其他方法、他人的结论做比较时，通常用一般过去时。论做比较时，通常用一般过去时。149150o材料、来源、名称、试验方法、实验设计不能省略写，材料、来源、名称、试验方法、实验设计不能省略写，因为只引用参考文献往往过于简单。在第一次提到时应因为只引用参考文献往往过于简单。在第一次提到时应该做详细的说明。只有在公认情况下做简要说明。该做详细的说明。只有在公认情况下做简要说明。o要注意公式符号的准确写法。如要注意公式符号的准确写法。如pH的的p应该小写。符号应该小写。符号在第一次出现时要写全称（在括号中可写缩写），如在第一次出现时要写全称（在括号中可写缩写），如soluble solid content(SSC)，polyphenol oxidize(PPO).o尽量少用不确定词，如尽量少用不确定词，如:maybe, probability, seems等。等。o尽量用量化数字说明问题，如尽量用量化数字说明问题，如 The new technique can improve the product quality a lot. 与与The new technique can improve the product by 20 percent.o讨论、结论应在本论文的基础上给出，不能太过引申。讨论、结论应在本论文的基础上给出，不能太过引申。o注意美式英语和英式英语的使用。注意美式英语和英式英语的使用。应注意的问题应注意的问题151152153