LanguageandLanguageLeaLanguageandLanguageLearning2008rning2008秋秋939008944939008944A phenomenon in language use: Metaphor or Non-literal meaning1. Edward is simply a lion. (metaphor)Literal: a large carnivorous cat.Non-literal/implied : courageous and ferocious2. The waves swallowed up the ship. (The ship sank.)3. Knavery and flattery are blood relations.(Knavery and flattery resemble each other in some respects)4.( Lines from poetry)O, gentle sleep, natures soft nurse,How have I frightened thee.Listening comprehension from TOFELW: Were you in the army during the Korean War?M: I hope youre joking. Im not that old.Q: What does the man mean?A) Korea was too great distance away.B) He didnt know how to get to Korea.C) At that time he was not in Korea.D) He wasnt old enough for the Army Im not that old!Comprehension Leads to AcquisitionWe must firstly understand what does the speaker mean when he/she says something under a specific context (input).Then we try to set up a language system by which we express ourselves properly (our ideas, mood/feeling, opinions) by speaking and writing (output).Text: passage of any length which form a united whole. Its the actual use of language. -theme (whats the main idea )-point of view-plot (the main conflict, the main characters)-style (humorous/serious, formal/colloquial)Language is very colorful in actual use. People use different modes of expression to express their views about the world. Only in young childrens speech, we seldom encounter non-literal meaning of words. So the phenomenon that words can be used non-literally has caused the attention by many scholars.Grice, H.P.: General Cooperative Principle “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.”Maxim of Quality: do not say what you believe to be falseMaxim of Quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required for current purposes of exchange.Maxim of Relevance: make your contribution relevantMaxim of Manner: be perspicuous（意思明白，表达清楚）-avoid obscurity, ambiguity; be brief, be orderlyGrices exampleA professor is writing a testimonial about a pupil who is candidate for a philosophy job, and his letter reads as follows:“Dear sir, Mr. Xs command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular.Your etc.Context: When/where/when/who, to whomContext: X has betrayed A A: “X is a fine friend”IronyXXX is a fine friend ! (of a man who is drunk and known to have broken up all the furniture) He was a little intoxicated”Meiosis ConclusionNon-literal meaning/Implicature relies heavily on contextRhetorical Devices/Mode of Expressiondifferent choice of wordhow the words are selectedhow the meaning is expressedAnother example(at a genteel tea party)A: “Mrs X is an old bag.” (A moment of appalled silence)B: “The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasnt it?” Topic-change: A has committed a social gaffe (Miss X sang “Home Sweet Home”) A: “Miss X produced a series of sounds that corresponded closely with the score Home, Sweet Home”. (Miss Xs performance suffered from some hideous defect.)Culture differenceEnglish teacher: Oh, what beautiful handwriting! (praise)Chinese student: No, not at all. You are joking. (modest)Another failure in communicationAir hostess: “Youre too old to move to the back, you should sit here”.(You are in advance here. You may remain here)Language Sense: Mode of expression-wording Metaphor: resembledA flood of protests poured in following the announcement. (A large quantitycame )He oozes geniality. (displays all over).Metonymy: RelatedKeep your eye on the ball (gaze)Hes always chasing skirts. (girls)It wont happen while I still breathe. (live)Synecdoche: part & wholeThey all live under one roof. (in one house)17. Lets go and have a bite. (have a meal)How the word is selected?How the meaning is realized? Metaphorical/transferred-Congruent/literalIdeational Function Interpersonal FunctionTextual FunctionIdeational function a. They arrived at the summit on the fifth day. b. The fifth day saw them at the summit.Different stylesSpoken & written:Consider the following sentence, from a book on railways written for children:a. (written version)In bridging the river valleys, the early engineers built many notable masonry viaducts for numerous arches.b. (spoken version)In the early days when engineers had to make a bridge across a valley and the valley had a river flowing through it, they often built viaducts, which were constructed of masonry and had numerous arches in them; and many of these viaducts became notable.Idioms: special cases of non- literal meaning1. “I hope I shall kick the bucket before Im as old as Grandfather,” he thought.2. “If you are late again, youll get the hook.Much of the history of every language is a history of demetaphorizing: of expressions which began as metaphors gradually losing their metaphorical character .“the source of trouble”; “ I wouldnt dream of telling him They have become part of language system.Interpersonal relationsMood, modality.“probability” subjectiveA. explicitI think/Im certaine.g. “I think Mary knows”B. implicitwill, muste. g. Maryll knowobjectivea. explictprobable, certainlye.g. “Mary probably knows”b. implicitits likely, its certain e.g. “Its likely Mary knows”.Speakers have indefinitely many ways of expressing their opinions,E. g, there are a thousand expressions which mean “I believe”It is obvious thatEveryone admits thatIt stands to reason thatIt would be foolish to deny thatThe conclusion can hardly be avoided thatYou cant seriously doubt thatIf you want to borrow a bike from different peopleWhat could you say?The more direct expression, the less polite.Some strategies of English studyComprehension leads to acquisition. When you read or listen to a text, you must try to fully understand it. (Input-Output)Context is very important in understanding a particular meaning of a word. You need to relate the context with the memory of word.You need to accumulate as more as English expressions to develop the English system in you mind by observing what the native speakers are saying under what situation. Pay special attention to the metaphorical modes of expressions.Use every possible resources of language, such as the web, the radio, the language lab, the English corner, the newspaper and periodicals. English speaking is very interactive. Use everything chance to speak English and dont be afraid of making errors. The native speakers can understand you by your tone, gesture, eyes contacts, etc. Dont hesitate to present your ideas in the classroom discussion.Understand the foreign culture is also extremely important. I strong recommend a book The American Way for you to read.Activity: Sing a songTake Me Home, Country RoadsAlmost heaven, West VirginiaBlue Ridge Mountains, Shenandoah River.Life is old there, older than the _, younger than the _, growing like a _.Country roads, take me home to the place I _. West Virginia, Mountain Mama. Take me home, country roads.All my memories gather round her, miners lady, stranger to _ _/ Dark and dusty, painted on the _, misty taste of moonshine, teardrop in my _.I hear her voice. In the _ hours she calls me. The _ reminds me of my home far away. And driving down the road, I get a feeling that I should have been home _.结束结束