Unit2 research and development Research and development, or R&D as it is commonly referred to, is an activity which is carried out by all sectors of manufacturing industry but its extent varies considerably, as we will see shortly. Let us first understand, or at least get a feel for, what the terms mean. Although the distinction between research and development is not always clear-cut, and there is often considerable overlap, we will attempt to separate them. l In simple terms research can be thought of as the activity which produces new idea and knowledge whereas development is putting those idea into practice as new processes and products. To illustrate this with an example, predicting the structure of new molecule which would have a specific biological activity and synthesizing it could be seen as research, whereas testing it and developing it to the point where it could be marketed as a new drug could be described as the development part. 1.Fundamental Research and Applied Researchl In industry the primary reason for carrying out R&D is economic and is to strengthen and improve the companys position and profitability. The purpose of R&D is to generate and provide information and knowledge to reduce uncertainty, solve problems and provide better data on which management can base decisions. Specific projects cover a wide range of to activity and time scales, from a new months to 20 years.l We can pick out a number of areas of R&D activity in the following paragraphs but if we were to start with those which were to spring to the mind of the academic , rather than the industrial, chemist then this would be basic, fundamental (background) or exploratory research and the synthesis of new compounds. This is also labeled “blue skies” research.l Fundamental research is typically associated with university research. In may be carried out for its own intrinsic interest and it will add to the total knowledge base but no immediate applications of it in the “real world ”will be apparent. Not that it will be provide a valuable training in defining and solving problems, i.e. research methodology for the research student who carries it out, under supervision. however, later “spin offs” from such work can lead to useful applications. Thus physicists claim that but for the student and development of quantum theory we might not have had computers and nuclear power. However, to take a specifically chemical example, general studies on a broad area such as hydrocarbon oxidation might provide information which would be useful in more specific areas such as cyclohexane oxidation for the production of nylon intermediates.l Aspects of synthesis could involve either developing new, more specific reagents for controlling particular functional group interconversions, i.e. developing synthetic methodology or complete synthesis of an entirely new molecule which is biologically active. Although the former is clearly fundamental the latter encompasses both this and applied aspects. This term applied has traditionally been more associated with research carried out in industrial laboratories, since this is more focused or targeted. It is a consequence of the work being business driven.l Note, however, that there has been a major change in recent years as academic institutions have increasingly turned to industry for research funding, with the result that much more of their research effort is now devoted to more applied research. Even so, in academia the emphasis generally is very much on the research rather than the development.l2. Types of Industrial Research and Developmentl The applied or more targeted type of research and development commonly carried out in industry can be of several type and we will briefly consider each. They are: (i) product development, (ii) process development, (iii) process improvement and (iv) applications development. Even under these headings there are a multitude of aspect so only a typical example can be quoted in each case. The emphasis on each of these will vary considerably within the different sectors of the chemical industry.lProduct development. Product development includes not only the discovery and development of a new drug but also, for example, providing a new longer-acting anti-oxidant additive to an automobile engine oil .Developments such as this have enabled servicing intervals to increase during the last decade from 3000 to 6000 to 9000 and now to 12000 miles. Note that most purchasers of chemicals acquire them for the efforts that they produce ,i.e. a specific use. TeflonTM,or ploytetra fluoroethylene (PTFE) ,may be purchased because it imparts a non-stick surface to cooking pots and pans, there by making easier to clean.lProcess development. Process development covers not only development a manufacturing process for an entirely new product but also a new process or route for an existing product. The push for the latter may originate for one or more of the following reasons: availability of new technology, change in the availability and/or cost of raw materials. Manufacture of vinyl chloride monomer is an example of this. Its manufacturing route has changed several times owing to changing economics, technology and raw materials. Another stimulus is a marked increase in demand and hence sales volume which can have a major effect on the economics of the process. The early days of penicillin to prevent the onset of septicemia of this.The ability of penicillin to prevent the onset of septicemia in battle wounds during the Second World War(19391945) resulted in an enormous demand for it to be produced in quantity. Up until then it had only been produced in small amounts on the surface of the fermentation broth in milk bottles! An enormous R&D effort jointly in the U.S. and the U.K. resulted in two major improvements to the process. Firstly a different strain of the mould (penicillium chrysogenum) gave much better yields than the original penicillium notatum. Secondly the major process development was the introduction of the deep submerged fermentation process. Here the fermentation takes place throughout the broth, provided sterile air is constantly, and vigorously, blown through it. This has enabled the process to be scaled up enormously to modern stainless steel fermenters having a capacity in excess of 50000 liters. It is salutary to note that in the first world war (1914-1919) more soldiers died from septicemia of their wounds than were actually killed outright on the battlefield!l Process development for a new product depends on things such as the scale on which it is to be manufactured, the by-product formed and their removal/recovery, and required purity. Date will be acquired during this development stage using semi-technical plant (up to 100 liters capacity) which will be invaluable in the design of the actual manufacturing plant. If the plant is to be a very large capacity, continuously operating one, e.g. petrochemical or ammonia, then a pilot plant will first be built and operate to test out the process and acquire more data, these semi-technical or pilot plants will be required for testing, e.g., a pesticide, or customer evaluation, e.g., a new polymer.l Note that by-products can have a major influence on the economics of a chemical process. Phenol manufacture provides a striking example of this. The original route, the benzenesulphonic acid route, has become obstacle because demand for its by-product sodium sulfite(2.2 tons/1 ton phenol) has dried up. Its recovery and disposal will therefore be an additional charge on the process, thus increasing the cost of the phenol. In contrast the cumene route owes its economic advantage over all the other route to the strong demand for the by-product acetone(0.6 tons/1 ton phenol ). The sale of this therefore reduces the net cost of the phenol.l A major part of the process development activity for a new plant is to minimize, or ideallyl prevent by designing out, waste production and hence possible pollution. The economic and environmental advantage of this are obvious.l Finally it should be noted that process development requires a big team effort between chemists, chemical engineers, and electrical and mechanical engineers to be successful.l Process improvement. Process improvement relates to processes which are already operating. It may be a problem that has arisen and stopped production. In this situation there is a lot of pressure to find a solution as son as possible so that production can restart, since down time costs money. More commonly, however, process improvement will be directed at improving the profitability of the process. This might be achieved in a number of ways. For example, improving the profitability of the process, increasing the capacity by introduction a new catalyst, or lowering the energy requirement of the process. An example of the latter was the introduction of turbo compressors in the production of ammonia by the Haber process. This reduced utility costs (mainly electricity) from$6.66 $0.56 per ton of ammonia produced. Improving the quality of the product, by process modification, may lead to new markets for the product. IN recent years, the most important process improvement activity has been to reduce the environmental impact of the process, i.e., to prevent the process causing any Pollution. Clearly there have been two interlinked driving forces for this. Firstly, the publics concern about the safety of chemicals and their effect on the environment. and the legislation which has follow as a result of this. Secondly the cost to the manufacturer of having to treat waste (i.e., material which cannot be recovered and used or sold) so that it can be safely disposed of, say by pumping into a river. This obviously represents a charge on the process which will increase the cost of the chemical being made. The potential for improvement by reducing the amount of waste is self-evident.l Note, however, with a plant which has already been built and is operating there are usually only very limited physical changes which can be made to the plant to achieve the above aims. Hence the importance, already mentioned, of eliminating waste production at the design stage of a new plant. Conserving energy and thus reducing energy cost has been another major preoccupation in recent years l (4) Applications development. Clearly the discovery of new applications or uses for a product can increase or prolong its profitability. Not only does this generate more income but the resulting increased scale of production can lead to lower unit cost and increased profit. An example is PVC whose early uses included records and plastic raincoats. Applications which canme later included plastic bags and particularly engineering uses in pipes and guttering .l Emphasis has already been place on the fact that chemicals are usually purchased for the effect, or particular use, or application which they have. This often means that there will be close liaison between the chemical companies technical sales representatives and the customer, and the level of technical support for the customer can be a major factor in winning sales. Research and development chemists provide the support for these applications development. An example is CF3CH3F.This is the first of the CFC replacements and has been developed as a refrigerant gas. However, it has recently been found that it has special properties as a solvent for extracting natural products from plant materials. In no way was this envisaged when the compound was first being made for use as a refrigerant gas, but it clearly is an example of applications development.l3. Variations in R&D Activities across the Chemical industry lBoth the nature and amount of R&D carried out varies significantly across the various sectors of the chemical industry. In sectors which involve large scale production of basic chemicals and where the chemistry, products and technology change only slowly because the processes are mature, R&D expenditure is at the lower end of the range for the chemical industry. Most of this will be devoted to process improvement and effluent treatment. Examples include ammonia fertilizers and chloralkali production from the inorganic side, and basic petrochemical intermediates such as ethylene from the organic side. At the other end of the scale lie pharmaceuticals and pesticides for paint protection products). Here there are immense and continuous efforts to synthesize new molecules which exert the desired, specific biological effect. A single company may generate 10.000new compounds for screening each year. Little wonder that some individual pharmaceutical companys annual R&D expenditure is now approaching 1000 million! Expressing this in a different way spend in excess of 14% of sales income (note not profits ) on R&D. Thank you拯畏怖汾关炉烹霉躲渠早膘岸缅兰辆坐蔬光膊列板哮瞥疹傻俘源拯割宜跟三叉神经痛-治疗三叉神经痛-治疗